1 Tomato Pinworm, Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Gelechiidae: Lepidoptera)

The pest has spread from South America to several parts of Europe and entire Africa and has now spread to India (Ballal et al., 2016).

Biology: The eggs appear small, cylindrical-shaped creamy white in colour laid singly on leaves or stems of the plant. Eggs hatch in 4–6 days. The larvae are greyish-white up to second instar and later, and their colour change to green to greenish pink. The larvae pass through four instars between 10 and 15 days. Pupation takes inside the leaf mine or on leaf surface. The pupae were greenish yellow initially and later turn to brown. Pupal period lasts for 10 days. The total life cycle is completed in 30–40 days. Adult moths are silvery brown with mottled wings (Nayana & Kalleshwaraswamy, 2015).

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Damage: The larvae make irregular mines on the leaves and produce larger galleries. The mining larvae feed on the mesophyll tissues by feeding inside the mines. Plants are damaged by also direct feeding on stems, buds, calyces, young fruit or ripe fruit and by the invasion of secondary pathogens which enter through the wounds made by the pest. It can cause up to 90% loss of yield and fruit quality under greenhouses and field conditions. Under severe damage, the entire leaf dries up affecting the yield of the crop. They damage the fruits by causing pin holes affecting the marketability of the fruits.

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Natural enemies: The nymphs and adults of mirid bug, Nesidiocoris tenuis, are known to predate on the different life stages of T. absoluta. Parasitoids like Trichogramma achaeae, Neochrysocharis formosa, Habrobracon sp. and Goniozus sp. are associated with the pinworm.

Management: The integrated control method recommended employs, in order, (1) massive trapping before planting, (2) collection and destruction of pinworm-affected plants to prevent the carryover the pest to the next season, (3) the application of imidacloprid in the irrigation water 8–10 days after planting and (4) the application of any one of the following insecticides, viz. Chlorantraniliprole 18.5% SC at 60 mL or cyantraniliprole 10% OD at 60 mL or flubendiamide 20% WG at 60 mL or indoxacarb 14.5% SC at 100 mL and spinosad. In case of pheromone trap that catches less than ten moths per trap per week, control treatments are recommended to be carried out mainly with bio-rational products, such as Bacillus thuringiensis and azadirachtin. In case of pheromone trap that catches more than ten moths per trap per week, control treatments are recommended to be carried out by combining bio-rational insecticides with synthetic chemical insecticides. In low population densities, mass trapping of the pest with pheromone baited water traps has also proved to be an effective control measure in Spanish outbreaks. An average of 30–40 pheromone baited water traps should be placed per hectare of water. Mass trapping provides an environmentally friendly control measure. Maximum reduction in larval population is recorded with neem oil at 3% (65.26%) followed by Pungam oil at 3% (62.30%) and NSKE at 5% (61.15%). Module 7 (pheromone traps + sprays of M. anisopliae at 3 mL/L + spinosad (45% SC) + azadirachtin (1% EC)) had highest damage control potential (85.34%) (Nitin et al., 2018).

2 Serpentine Leaf Miner, Liriomyza trifolii (Burgess) (Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Liriomyza trifolii is native to the USA (Florida). It might have entered India accidentally probably, during 1990–1991. It is a polyphagous species affecting more than 78 annual plant species being especially serious on tomato and castor.

Biology: The adult female makes punctures in the leaf tissue with its ovipositor for both feeding and oviposition. Eggs are laid into the leaf below epidermis on the under-surface of the leaves. Eggs are oval in shape and creamy white. Eggs hatch in 2–3 days. Maggots are minute orange in colour and mine the leaf surface. There are three active larval instars completing in 5–6 days. A fourth instar occurs between puparium formation and pupation. Pupation occurs inside the leaf mine. Puparium is initially golden brown and turns darker. Pupae are rectangular and oval shaped, narrowing at the ends. Pupal period is 8–10 days. Adults are small flies with yellowish head and reddish eyes. The thorax and abdomen are grey to black; legs are yellow. Life cycle is completed in 20–25 days.

Damage: The larvae that hatch out from the eggs mine the leaf feeding on the mesophyll region leaving a serpentine structure and thus the common name. The severely affected leaves may drop. The larvae make irregular mines showing whitish lines over the upper surface of the leaves resulting in destruction of chlorophyll in the mesophyll tissues of the leaf. Under severe infestation, the infested leaves turn yellowish brown in colour resulting in drooping up of the leaves.

Natural enemies: In India, parasitism by the indigenous natural enemies goes up to 40% in India. Hemiptarsenus varicornis (Girault) is the most predominant one. Species composition of the parasite complex is least affected by avermectin.

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Management: Collection and destruction of infested leaves to prevent the build-up of the insect. Foliar spray of neem seed kernel extract 5% at weekly interval helps in managing the insect damage. Chemicals like abamectin, spinosad, acephate and profenophos are also useful to reduce the leaf miner damage.

3 Fruit Borer, Helicoverpa armigera (Hubn.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

This is a major polyphagous voracious feeding pest infesting several crops including tomato.

Biology: Gravid females lay eggs singly mostly on tender parts of the plants. Eggs are globular and shinning greenish yellow in colour. Incubation period ranges from 3 to 9 days depending upon weather conditions. Full grown larva is about 3.5 cm long. Larvae vary in colour, initially brown, and later turn greenish with darker broken lines along the side of the body. The larval period lasts for 13–19 days. The body is covered with radiating hairs. The full grown caterpillar pupates in the soil in an earthen cell and emerges in 16–21 days. Pupation takes place inside the soil. Pupal stage lasts for 7–15 days. Adult moth is stout, medium sized with brownish/greyish forewings with a dark cross band near the outer margin and dark spots near the costal margins. The hindwings are light and dull coloured with black border.

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Damage: The young larvae start feeding on foliage; as they mature they bore inside the fruit putting the head and thorax inside the fruit and abdomen protruding outside the fruit. The bore holes will be filled with frass causing economic damage to the crop.

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Natural enemies: The important larval parasitoids like Campoletis chlorideae Uchida, Eriborus argenteopilosus Cam., Senometopia illota Curran, Goniophthalmus halli and Hexamermis sp. are found causing 10–40% mortality of H. armigera in tomato fields. Six species of Trichogramma, viz. T. chilonis Ishii, T. brasiliensis Ashm., T. pretiosum Riley, T. exiguum Pinto and Platner, T. chilotraeae Nagaraja and Nagarkatti and T. perkinsi Gir, are found to parasitise the eggs of H. armigera on tomato in different parts of the country. Natural parasitism varies from 25 to 70%, but they are unable to keep the pest under check. Hence these parasitoids are to be multiplied in the tomato fields. Releases of T. chilonis, T. brasiliensis and T. pretiosum at 50,000/ha/week/release (6 releases) are to be made to bring down the pest population. Five applications of HaNPV at 250 LE/ha (1.5 × 1012 POB/ha) along with adjuvants during the evening hours at weekly intervals right from the flower initiation results in significant reduction in the tomato fruit borer damage (Mohan et al., 1996). Application of Bt at weekly intervals is also able to control the tomato fruit borer H. armigera. There is about 60% reduction in the damage caused by H. armigera in tomato field with the application of Beauveria bassiana. Further, for effective control of the fruit borer, integration of Trichogramma either with HaNPV or Bt is also suggested. Application of 5 sprays of gingelly oil formulation of the fungus Nomuraea rileyi at 3.2 × 108 spores/mL at weekly interval right from flowering has recorded significantly reduced larval population, least borer damage, and significantly increased yield of tomato (Gopalakrishnan & Mohan, 2001).

Management: Collection and destruction of infested fruits containing the larvae help to check the spread of the borer infestation. Trap cropping with marigold (ratio of 1:16) will attract adult moths for oviposition so that they can be hand collected and destroyed. Installation of sex pheromone traps at 12/ha will help to monitor and mass trap the adult moth population. Spraying indoxacarb14.5% SC at 8 mL/10 L or flubendiamide 20 WG at 5 g or novaluron 10EC at 7.5 mL/10 L helps in controlling the borer damage.

4 Tobacco Caterpillar, Spodoptera litura (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

It is pest of several crops including tomato. Spodoptera litura is found causing fruit damage on tomato up to 40% in some parts of India including Orissa.

Biology: Female lays about 300 eggs in clusters. The eggs are covered over by brown hairs, and they hatch in about 3–5 days. Caterpillar measures 35–40 mm in length, when full grown. It is velvety, black with yellowish green dorsal stripes and lateral white bands with incomplete ring-like dark band on the anterior and posterior end of the body. It passes through six instars. Larval stage lasts 15–30 days. Pupation takes place inside the soil. Pupal stage lasts 7–15 days. Adult is a moth is medium sized and stout bodied with forewings pale grey to dark brown in colour having wavy white crisscross markings. Hindwings are whitish with brown patches along the margin of the wing. Pest breeds throughout the year. Moths are active at night. Adults live for 7–10 days. Total life cycle takes 32–60 days.

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Damage: In early stages, the caterpillars are gregarious and scrape the chlorophyll content of leaf lamina giving it a papery white appearance. Later they become voracious feeders making irregular holes on the leaves. They create irregular holes on leaves initially and later skeletonisation leaving only veins and petioles, heavy defoliation and bored fruits with irregular holes.

Management: Collection and destruction of infested fruits containing the larvae help to check the spread of the borer infestation. Installation of sex pheromone traps at 12/ha will help to monitor and mass trap the adult moth population. Spraying indoxacarb14.5% SC at 8 mL/10 L or flubendiamide 20 WG at 5 g or novaluron 10EC at 7.5 mL/10 L helps in controlling the borer damage.

5 Cotton Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)

It is known to cause severe damage to several vegetable crops including tomato.

Biology: Females lays about 150 eggs on the under-surface of the younger leaves. Eggs are small, white, pear shaped and vertically attached to the leaf surface though a pedicel. Eggs hatch in 5–8 days. Nymphs are oval, scale-like and greenish white in colour. Eggs hatch into first instar less active immobile larval stage. The larvae after 2 days transform into nymphal stages which actively suck the sap from the leaves. There are four nymphal instars appearing scale-like usually on the under-surface of the leaves. The fourth instar nymph pupates in the leaf. Adult emerges from puparia through a T-shaped slit. Adults are covered with a white waxy bloom. Egg to adult stage takes 18–30 days for completion under favourable conditions but extended in winter condition.

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Damage: The nymphs and adults suck the leaf sap and reduce the vigour of the plant. It is transmitting the leaf curl virus disease. The newly formed leaves appear very small with reduced size and internodes. The infested leaves turn yellow and crinkled with a cup-like appearance which later dries up and droop off. Under severe damage conditions, they secrete honeydew that invites the growth of sooty mould fungus on leaves. Infested plants will not bear flowers affecting the economic value of the crop.

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Management: Collection and destruction of infected plants to prevent the spread of infection through vector, whitefly. Removal of alternate hosts like weeds has to be performed to prevent the off-season survival of the insect vector. Installation of yellow sticky trap at 15 traps/ha at canopy level helps to monitor and mass trap flying adult flies. Foliar spray of thiamethoxam 25% WG at 4.0 mL/10 L or dimethoate 0.05% or imidacloprid 0.10% at 15 days interval about 2 weeks after transplanting controls the insect vector population.

6 Mealybugs, Coccidohystrix insolita (Green), Paracoccus marginatus (Williams and Granara de Willink), Phenacoccus parvus Morrision, Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley, Ferrisia virgata (Cockerell), Phenacoccus madeirensis Green and Nipaecoccus viridis (Newstead)

Mealybugs are injurious to tomato in several countries. Phenacoccus solenopsis is found to be an important pest of tomato in north, central and south zones in India (Mohindru et al., 2009).

Damage: Mealybugs remove the sap from plants and cause them to become weak. When mealybugs infest tomato plants, they leave behind a honeydew residue that attracts other insects, such as ants. The pants are covered with black sooty mould. Plants suffering from mealybug infestation will begin to turn yellow.

6.1 Management

Insecticidal soaps effectively control soft-bodied insects, such as mealybugs, by stripping them of their protective coating. Mealybugs on tomato are killed with the application of dish detergent.

Phenacoccus solenopsis: Aenasius bambawalei Hayat is a potential biocontrol agent causing parasitism up to 30% in India (Mohindru et al., 2009).

Coccidohystrix insolita: Tomatoes grown in polyhouse were observed to be attacked by two species of mealybugs, Ph. solenopsis and C. insolita, in Bangalore North. Phenacoccus solenopsis was the predominant mealybug attacking all parts of the plants. The mealybug population was reduced with the release of Cryptolaemus grubs to 6.4–7.0 mealybugs/plant as compared to176.4 mealybugs/plant in the check. The insecticides such as buprofezin, profenophos and spirotetramat were also found to be equally effective and on par with C. montrouzieri in controlling the Ph. solenopsis (Gopalakrishna Pillai et al., 2011).

Paracoccus marginatus: The parasitoid Acerophagus papayae Noyes could be used to control Pa. marginatus on tomato in India as it proved to be highly effective against the above mealybug infesting other crops.

Melon Fruit Fly, Zeugodacus cucurbitae: In recent years, melon fruit fly, Zeugodacus cucurbitae, is becoming a serious threat to tomato crop resulting in severe yield and economic loss to growers. Adult female fly starts laying eggs underneath the pedicel of the fruit. Deltamethrin 2.8% EC at 1 mL/L and spinosad 45% SC at 0.2 mL/L were found superior in controlling fruit fly infestation.

7 Other Insect Pests

7.1 Coleopterans

Spotted leaf beetle Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata (F.), Epilachna ocellata Redtenbacher (Coccinellidae) and Monolepta andrawesi Jacoby (Chrysomelidae) and sap beetle Lasiodactylus glabricola Candeze (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae).

7.2 Hemipterans

Leaf bugs Nesidiocoris tenuis (Reuter) (Miridae), Nezara viridula (Linnaeus) (Pentotomidae), tree hopper Tricentrus bicolor Distant (Membracidae) and Leafhopper Amrasca biguttula biguttula Ishida (Cicadellidae).

7.3 Aphids

Myzus persicae (Sulzar) and Aphis gossypii (Glover), Aphis fabae Scopoli and Aphis craccivora Koch, spiralling whitefly Aleurodicus dispersus Russell (Aleyrodidae), Icerya aegyptiaca (Douglas) (Margarodidae), Piezodorus hybneri (Gmelin) (Pentatomidae) and Metacanthus pulchellus Dallas (Berytidae).

7.4 Thrips

Thrips tabaci Lindeman, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) and Frankliniella schultzei (Trybom) (Thripidae).

Lepidopterans: Trichoplusia ni (Hubner) (Noctuidae), stem feeders Euzophera perticella Rag. (Pyralidae) and Leucinodes orbonalis (Crambidae), fruit-sucking moth Eudocima fullonia (Linn.) and Othreis materna Linn., cut worm Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel) and Chrysodeixis chalcites (Esper) (Noctuidae) and Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller) (Gelechiidae).

7.5 Grasshoppers

Poekilocerus pictus (Fabricius) (Acrididae) and Atractomorpha crenulata Fab. (Pyrgomorphidae).

7.6 Fruit Flies

Bactrocera diversa (Coquillett) and Bactrocera latifrons (Hendel) (Trypetidae).

8 Red Spider Mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch, T. neocaledoncus Andre and T. cinnabarinus (Boisduval) (Acari: Tetranychidae)

This is a serious pest causing damage under low humidity high temperature conditions with a wide host range infesting tomato, beans and cucurbits.

Biology: Adult mites oviposit on the leaves. Eggs appear creamy white, translucent and hatches within 2–4 days. The egg hatches into a larval stage and pass through protonymph and duetonymphal stages. All stages of larvae and nymphs cause damage to the leaves. Under favourable conditions, mites complete their lifecycle in 10–14 days with overlapping generations during a cropping season. The two-spotted spider mite is a common species on tomatoes in the south and is distinguishable by a pair of dark spots visible through the orange body.

Damage: Warm weather conditions are favourable for multiplication. Affected leaves become reddish brown and bronzy; severe infestation larvae silken webbing on the leaves; Leaves wither and dry; Flower and fruit formation affected.

Management: Spraying fenazaquin 10 EC at 0.01%, spiromesifen 240 SC at 0.02% and abamectin is effective against the spider mites on tomato.

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9 Nematodes: Root-Knot Nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and M. javanica, and Reniform Nematode, Rotylenchulus reniformis (Linford and Oliveira)

9.1 Root-Knot Nematodes

Damage symptoms include infected plants in patches in the field. Formation of galls on host root system is the primary symptom. Roots branch profusely starting from the gall tissue causing a ‘beard root’ symptom. Infected roots become knobby and knotty. In severely infected plants, the root system is reduced, and the rootlets are almost completely absent. Meloidogyne incognita causes 30–45% loss in tomato yield, while M. javanica causes 70% loss in yield. Combined application of Bacillus subtilis and Paecilomyces lilacinus suppressed root-knot nematode population by application of bioagents individually. Treatment of nursery bed with Pseudomonas fluorescens (10 9 cfu/g) and Trichoderma harzianum (10 6 cfu/g) each at the rate of 20 g/m2 and subsequent application of 5 MT of farmyard manure enriched with 5 kg each of P. fluorescens (10 9 cfu/g) and Paecilomyces lilacinus (10 6 cfu/g) per hectare significantly reduced M. incognita in tomato roots by 70%.

9.2 Reniform Nematode

When the immature female penetrates the root, a feeding tube forms from stylet secretions. Nematode infestation can cause symptoms in the plant that resemble those of moisture and nutrient deficiencies. It causes hypertrophy in the pericycle cells of seedling roots and in the periderm cells of the roots of older plants. Root growth slows, and secondary root development is limited. Infested plants can become stunted and chlorotic. Rotylenchulus reniformis is responsible for 50% loss in fruit yield of tomato. Nursery bed treatment with P. fluorescens (with 1 × 10 9 spores/g) and Pochonia chlamydosporia (with 1 × 106 spores/g) each at 20 g/m2 and field application of 5 tonnes of enriched. Tomato seedling treatment with P. fluorescens and application of neem cake enriched with P. fluorescens was found to be significantly effective in reducing the population of nematodes.

10 Giant African Snail

Epicarp of succulent vegetables like tomato (Solanum esculentum) and cucumber (Cucumis sativus) was scrapped by the snails. Tomatoes with notched appearance due to snail feeding were common symptoms observed. Up to 25% yield loss was recorded in tomato.