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Introduction

When you asked me what I did in school today, and I said, ‘I just played.’ Please don’t misunderstand me. For you see, I am learning as I play. I am learning to enjoy and be successful in my work. Today I am a child, and my work is play.—(Wadley, 1974)

Children are constantly engaged in doing something, whether they are alone or in a group. They are always ready to play. Play is an essential aspect of development all through the lifespan. Play and recreation are right for every individual. Play is the potential platform to learn new skills and behavior. The place and situation do not matter; children play indoors or outdoors, maybe in a school classroom or even around the living room. Sometimes they play alone, sometimes with their parents, family members, neighbors, or friends. Children make games and rules while playing. Quality playtime has a positive impact on overall development and well-being. Play enhances happiness and reduces health and mental health risks.

Play creates a medium for the children to interact with their environment and with others within the environment (Arthur et al., 1999; Bae, 2009). It helps create a space where parents engage fully with their children (Arthur et al., 1999). Play is an integral part of education and learning as well (Hyvönen, 2011; Isenberg & Quisenberry, 2002; Rautio & Winston, 2015; Wallerstedt & Pramling, 2012; Wood, 2009) where a child learns many concepts that are not formally taught in any education system or school. Through play, children develop various skills such as creativity, resilience, confidence, social, negotiation, problem solving, critical thinking, team management, group work, and self-advocacy (Isenberg & Quisenberry, 2002; Pramling Samuelsson & Johansson, 2006; Lillard et al., 2011). In addition to this, children learn about their emotions and how to handle them through playing. They experience joy when they feel happy with the play while feeling anxious and fearful during competitive play. Play also helps the individual to develop social relationships and provides an opportunity to create friendships.

Keeping in mind that children are a part of the vulnerable population in today’s world, parents are afraid to allow their children to play freely, considering the impending dangers all around us. The increasing cases of child abuse are one such dangerous factor (e.g. Poddar & Mukherjee, 2020; SS Teo & Griffiths, 2020). Further, children are exposed to getting injured during the play, such as breaking bones, head injury, getting wounded, while some children end up disabled due to the injuries during play, and maybe death. The fast-paced and pressured lifestyles contribute to the vulnerabilities as well. At the same time, the SARS-CoV2 pandemic catalyzed it with the characters of staying home and social distancing, leaving children increasingly attracted to the virtual fantasy world (Wiederhold, 2020), which reduces real physical, social play. Neglecting physical play could create potential consequences in development.

What is Play?

Since play is of many types and forms, complex inside out, a single objective definition is not enough to explain all that it encompasses (Bodrova et al., 2013; Duncan & Tarulli, 2003; Garwood, 1982; Solnit, 1987). There are many definitions and categorizations of play. Jean Piaget, William James, Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, and Lev Vygotsky have viewed play as integral to human development. Play can take the form of improvisation or pretense, interactive, performance, mimicry, games, sports, and thrill-seeking (Kenney, 2012; Rautio & Winston, 2015), such as extreme or dangerous sports (e.g., sky-diving and high-speed racing).

Play is defined as “a physical or mental activity that has no purpose or objective outside of pure enjoyment or amusement” (NCHPAD, 2004). Social play, free play, and mixed-age play are all found to play a role in developing a child’s socio-emotional skills. The term “hunter-gather education” introduced by Peter Gray is crucial for a child’s development. Hunter-gather education means playing outdoors in their neighborhood with the same age or different age-group peers (Gray, 2011a, b, c). Children instantly learn from other children, and they try to imitate them rather than older people. Children have a different idea of play when compared to adults (Nicholson, Shimpi, & Kurnik, 2014). Children can learn a lot while playing. Mixed-age play among older children would develop characteristics like leadership, parenting, and responsibility (Gray, 2011a, b, c). Mixed-age play has many benefits (Gray, 2011a, b, c), even more than same-age play. Consider this situation where a four-year-old child is playing with a two-year-old, then the four-year-old would learn how to care for little ones, and the elder one would teach the two-year-old; it could be a simple rhyme or how to play Peek-a-boo.

Recreation, play, leisure, and games are terms we have often used interchangeably, although there are slight differences between them based on the motivation and purpose that they serve for the individual. Research has also shown developmental benefits of positive experience of play, recreation, and leisure activities (Caldwell & Witt, 2011). Playfulness is a concept that can describe the extent of playful disposition in an individual, guided by internal motivation (Schwartz & Wrzesniewski, 2016), a typical process with self-imposed goals (Abuhamdeh & Csikszentmihalyi, 2012), and a tendency to attribute their meanings to objects or behavior (Barnett, 1991; Staempfli, 2007). Recreational activities are what individuals engage in when they perceive they are bored and have nothing else to do. Leisure activities have been described as positive ways individuals fill their free time (Caldwell & Witt, 2011).

History and Philosophy of Play

Evolutionary biologists who have studied animal play have identified that play is vitally important, as it allows the practice of essential skills for survival. The play has also been significant for the mental and physical health of animals and social development within species (Burghardt, 2014). Social interaction among mammals has been shown to influence the play (Bekoff, 1972). The research on the play behavior of mammals can be related to children. Beyond this basic science, the work of philosophers has enabled us to identify the significance of play in human life and understand how “play” is conceptualized in various ways in different contexts (Pellegrini et al., 2007).

Ancient philosophers like Plato considered play and leisure as essential, and that even Socratic dialogue includes playing as a medium to learn (Hunnicutt, 1990). Dewey believed that play without specific goals is not crucial (Makedon, 1993). The importance and need for play gained prominence over the years. Psychologists and educators give importance to play, and it is not separated from learning; it is a basic need of a child. Play is thought of very differently in some Asian philosophies. Play in Hindu cosmologies—for example, as depicted in the ancient Sanskrit text, the Rig Veda—is much more integrated into the cosmos as a whole. In this worldview, play is not oppositional to the social order but a part of it. Thus, concepts of play are fundamentally different across cultures, and so is its complicated and puzzling nature.

Play—Cognitive, Social, and Emotional Development

Play is a child’s natural medium for self-expression.—Virginia Axline

Axline points out that play acts as a robust foundation for children’s holistic development and provides an effective medium to express, share, and most importantly, allow them to be a significantly active part of the world. Every human being strives for control over moments, experiences, and overall, in life. Children acquire sense of control, power, and choice through play.

Play is an essential aspect of development not only in childhood (Bodrova & Leong, 2005; Whitebread, Basilio, Kuvalja, & Verma, 2012) but throughout the lifespan (Benveniste, 1998; Raphael-Leff, 2012). Play impacts children’s cognitive, social, emotional, and physical development across cultures (Sallis et al., 1997; Herrington & Brussoni, 2015; Goldstein, 2012; Isenberg & Quisenberry, 2002). The social and cognitive development of children who do not play enough is often low compared to those who play (Farmer-Dougan and Kaszuba, 1999). Children play in many ways. Most children play with their imaginary friends, and they create a fictional world. Pretend play, such as creating fantastical works, plays a role in developing a child’s thinking capacity, understanding their surroundings, and building their perspectives (Bergen, 2002; Lillard et al., 2011). A child’s emotions and managing emotions develop through play. A child would learn to express their feelings, like love, caring, helping during play. Also, the child would learn to manage emotions like anger and fear through play.

The social development of a child occurs through play. Playing with friends makes the child mold their socially desirable behaviors, control their emotions, and accept and understand others (Isenberg & Quisenberry, 2002). They learn many social behaviors from play. Playmates have an essential role in a child’s social development (Hepler, 1997). As an infant plays with toys, parents, and caretakers, it learns attachment, caring, and friendship (Goldstein, 2012). Later the child goes to preschool and socializes with other children. Socialization would also impart the ability to bounce back from fights or arguments that may happen among peers (Jabborova & Umarova, 2020). Children also learn to appreciate others’ points of view, learn to accept their failures, and celebrate other’s victories. Play can thus act as a medium of connection between children.

Play has been long recognized as a critical aspect of childhood experiences and development (Hirsh-Pasek & Golinkoff, 2008; Hyvönen, 2011; Nitecki & Chung, 2013; Pramling Samuelsson & Johansson, 2006; Yelland, 2011). Some of the earliest play studies in the 1890s by G. Stanley Hall sparked an interest in the child’s development. This process of play influences the development of fine and gross motor skills (Butcher & Eaton, 1989; Dadkhah & Farahbod, 2004), language, socialization, personal awareness, emotional well-being, creativity, problem solving, and learning ability (Hyvönen, 2011; Pramling Samuelsson & Johansson, 2006). Play helps children be active, make choices, and master tasks in hand. Those who seldom play seem rigid and unresourceful in the face of stress or lose the healing capacity for humor. Play impacts sensorimotor, cognitive, and social development. Neuroscience research has uncovered essential links between role play and neurogenesis (Caillois, 2017).

Theories and Types of Play

American Psychologist Peter Gray looked at a variety of definitions of play and distilled them into five principles. And a few of those principles are that play is self-directed; we choose to play. And secondly, that play is intrinsically motivating. It is about the means and not the end outcome. Third, it is about involving our imaginations. It is asking ourselves the “as if” question. And so, play can be perceived as a social and cultural activity. It enables us to reflect on our social and cultural worlds, play with those worlds, and ultimately escape them when we need one (Hutt & Bhavnani, 1972).

Types of Play

  1. 1.

    Corinne Hutt (1979) was a British psychologist who identified three broad categories of play that provide a helpful framework for thinking about play.

There are many different types of play within these broad categories, such as

Epistemic play—Exploratory play in which knowledge of things is acquired; Ludic play—Play that draws on past experiences and includes symbolic and fantasy play; and games with rules, including games of skill and chance (Hughes, 2002)

  1. 2.

    Bob Hughes, a British playworker, attempted to define 12 different play types. In reality, it might be challenging to identify some of these play types when observing a play episode. Also, a single play episode might demonstrate a number of these play types simultaneously. For instance, Hughes described symbolic play as a play where one thing represents something else or Rough and Tumble play involves physically active play like fighting or chasing. He categorizes play into socio-dramatic play, communication play, creative play, deep play, exploratory play, locomotor play, fantasy and imaginative play, mastery play, object play, and recapitulative play (Hughes, 2013).

Theories of Play

  1. 1.

    Classical play theories vs modern play theories: While classical play theories focus on the physical and intuitive aspects of play, modern play theories concentrate on children’s psychological and emotional development and how it is influenced by play. Classical theories help develop physical and mental abilities that would be beneficial for children as adults. Modern theories help children express their emotions, manage stress, and create a sense of self through play (Burr et al., 2019; Fisher, 1992; Linsey & Cowell, 2003)

  2. 2.

    Vygotsky and Piaget have continuously emphasized the importance of play in a child’s development (Bodrova et al., 2013; Garwood, 1982). One of Vygotsky’s colleagues pointed out accurately that increasing instructions and control on play can tamper with the natural course of childhood development, as children will be expected to consistently mature prematurely (Broderick & Blewitt, 2015, p. 116).

Play allows children to build competencies and skills in a non-stressful and pleasurable way. Piaget stated that their cognitive structures need to be exercised and that play provides the perfect setting for this exercise. Vygotsky was exclusively interested in the symbolic and make-believe aspects of play (Kirkham et al., 2013). Language and communication skills may be enhanced through roles and rules in play (Andresen, 2005). It can benefit young children’s literacy skills. A child needs to interact with peers, adults, and their environment to learn and grow. Piaget proposed that a dynamic interaction that allows assimilation and accommodation will lead to adapting behaviors, changes, and gaining new knowledge in context with prior knowledge.

Using play to relate to others is done in the following stages: Engagement—A child follows another and watches to express emotions; two-way communication—Responses by the child through gestures and expression of feelings; Shared Meanings—Use of words to describe and care-taking themes and familiar ways of acting; and emotional thinking—The child can differentiate what is real from what is not and starts more complex play.

Play spaces foster an interactive mode of learning which leads to cognitive development. Babies and younger children are in constant awe of their environment. They observe, babble, and stare. With relatively shorter attention spans, they take notice of newer stimuli and respond to them. In particular, children are more often than not always ready to play with anyone, anywhere, exploring themselves along with their environment in this process (Glenn et al., 2013). Play allows children to learn focus, problem solving, accommodation, cooperation, be creative, explore, and understand different points of view.

Impact of Play Across the Lifespan: Health, Happiness, and Well-Being

The meaning of play differs according to the age group, although the impact remains more or less the same across age. Play helps children release their energy and help them to develop physical, cognitive, social, and emotional skills. Play does not and need not stop at childhood. Play impacts an individual at all stages of life, both physically and cognitively, and helps foster growth and development.

Play enhances creative thinking through means of imagination, pleasure, and social understanding (Fredrickson, 2001). At the present moment, when one primarily spends most of their time in front of the screen, it limits the body from channelizing and burning stored energy; as opposed to playing outdoor games like football, hockey, tennis, swimming, and so on. Positive emotions like adjustability or patience may replace other negative feelings like irritation and frustration. The body starts weakening or becoming fragile after a certain age may be actual if seen physiologically. Individuals encounter obesity, blood pressure, diabetes, and the likes of physical conditions after a certain period (Farley et al., 2007). But cognitive functions have to be developed and maintained throughout the lifespan. Physical activity may help reduce distress and keep one physically agile, preventing contracting lifestyle disorders and fostering the individual’s cognitive ability.

Infancy and Early Childhood

Infants and toddlers depend on mothers or primary caregivers for play. The first play space for infants and toddlers is considered as the home. Infants and toddlers play with their caregivers and toys and all the safe materials in the household. Primary caregivers have the responsibility to make a safe environment for the infant, play with them, give them the play materials, and help them sit and play (Pierce, 2000). Levin and Rosenquest (2001) discussed the importance of toys in infants’ play. Toys are also a part of determining the quality of play. Pretend play increases creativity, imagination, and expression of feelings (Russ, 2003), and children can engage in pretend play through various mediums such as play dough, drawing or painting, dress up, or playing with dolls. Play using blocks, puzzles, and cards can help recognize the characteristic features of the objects and organize ideas and develop logic. Outdoor games, dance, and sports help to develop physical strength, flexibility, and coordination skills. Music and musical instruments help develop rhythm and musical skills (“Why play matters—Family Lives”, n.d.)

Adolescents and Youth

Play is an activity for adolescents to engage physically and mentally without a specific objective. For example, quizzes, crossword puzzles, and sudoku help to improve knowledge. Treasure hunts enhance physical activity. Play is an entertainment and a platform for creative expression. Burr et al. (2019) reported that children gain motor skills and creativity (Taylor, Kuo, Spencer, & Blades, 2006; Woolley & Lowe, 2013) as well as learn risk management skills by engaging in risky outdoor play (Christensen & Mikkelsen, 2008).

Adolescents commonly face many emotional irregularities and thoughts during puberty. Play acts as a relief for emotional irregularity and to cope with stressful situations. Due to the drastic hormonal changes and imbalances occurring in the body, adolescents go through phases of identity confusion and thought fluctuations; play helps overcome adolescent issues, improve self-control, and manage emotions. Play and playfulness moderate adolescents’ health and well-being in stressful situations (Augustine, & Kumar, 2016; Byrne & Mazanov, 2001; Harkness & Bundy, 2001 as cited in Staempfli, 2007). More interestingly, the type of playfulness demonstrated varied in different contexts; for example, in school, a structured setting play was different from leisure, unstructured setting (Liberman, 1975; as cited in Staempfli, 2007). The play activities that adolescents usually engage in are traditionally hobbies that they take up in their leisure time. Play can make influential contributions to human health and development.

Adulthood

Play is not just limited to children. It extends or plays a vital role throughout one’s life. A common misconception of play is that it is only for children (Cohen, 2018). Usually, adults prefer to work rather than engage in play and recreational activities. In contrast, nowadays, workplaces promote play as there is evidence for the benefits of play in job satisfaction, productivity, and effectiveness. Workplaces conduct many recreational activities to reduce job stress. Play helps to reduce the stress releasing hormones and keep people healthy. The benefits of play in adulthood include stimulating creativity, uplifting mood, building interpersonal skills, increasing energy, and decreasing the risk of burnout (Guitard, Ferland, & Dutil, 2005; Yamamoto, 2021).

When one reaches adulthood, play can help maintain or boost energy levels, helps to relieve stress, and also helps with interpersonal interactions and bonds. Researchers state that play leads to the release of endorphins or happy hormones. It also helps in the secretion of substances which helps in the growth of brain cells. Adulthood consists of family, career, marriage, children, children’s education, and many more. Looking after themselves would foster healthy growth as well as smoother transitions through stressful or demanding situations. As we grow older, we naturally spend less time on play. People are always busy with their job. They may not spend time with their children or family members. The kind of fast life makes them frustrated. It is necessary to play at least once a week for adults. It would have many benefits for adults. Play makes them relaxed and healthy. The ability to plan their life, strategize, and organize various aspects of their tasks in life are specific skills essential for healthy functioning.

Play has equal relevance among adults. Playfulness has shown greater job satisfaction and increased work productivity among adults (Staempfli, 2007). Play helps to reduce stress among adults. Adults play with children and with other adults. There are varieties of games adults play like card and video games, chess, carroms, football, volleyball, cricket, badminton, and so on. Outdoor play increases physical activity and keeps them healthy. Playing with friends may help create a balance between personal and social life. It facilitates social interaction which is not related to familial or occupational tasks. Play is essential for the health and well-being of adults. Play is not an age-restricted activity and is relevant in all stages of life.

Older Adults

Games have a positive impact on older people. Play helps to reduce memory loss and improve cognitive skills. Kramer and Erickson (2007) found that short exercises prevent brain volume reduction and increase the gray matter in the prefrontal cortex among older people. Physical activities make people energetic and increase blood flow. Regular indulgence in such activities prevents the body from burnout. Play makes older people healthy and reduces the chance of getting diseases. A research by Burr and colleagues focused on the lifespan perspective on the perception of the importance of play in older adults. It focused on how they recall their play from childhood and compare how it has changed over the years. The research used memories of play in older adults connected with the eighth stage of Erikson’s psychosocial development. Playing memories help in contributing to the meaning of life; it can help the individual look back and reflect on. Older adults emphasized the importance and benefits of play as it helps with problem solving, being active, happy and creative, and helps keep an open mind (Burr et al., 2019).

Special Population and Play

Disabilities—be it of any kind—will impact the child’s potential to play and learning from such a play (Baker & Donelly, 2001; Spencer-Cavaliere & Watkinson, 2010). Children with disabilities will have a different perception and understanding of the concept of play and even learn from it differently. The process of play will impact children with various disabilities differently. Thus, defining play in terms of disabled children is challenging (Brodin, 1999) yet crucial. It is because of difficulty in understanding the unique, interactive effect each limitation of the disability has on children’s play. The unique nature of different impairments makes it challenging. The value of the specific play would be taken into account only when they obtain specific developmental goals (Goodley & Runswick-Cole, 2010). The play would be mainly related to the kind of impairment a child has. Play helps to develop the skills and abilities of children with disabilities. Play helps them to improve their fine motor skills. Children with special needs engage in play slowly than the normative rate of typically developing children and may spend less time playing. Here, parents or caregivers involve and direct their child’s play forms.

The physical, social, personal, and environmental barriers may reduce children’s play experiences with special needs (Missiuna & Pollock, 1991). Play helps them overcome the fear and complexity they may have internalized by observing and comparing themselves with other people. The factors influencing play among children with special needs are the child’s unique capabilities, the influence of parent–child and peer relationships, caregivers, and the use of toys and resource aids (Missiuna & Pollock, 1991). Woolley (2013) discussed the barriers of creating and using inclusive play spaces for disabled children. Inclusive play spaces are rare as there is a lack of awareness of how beneficial they can be. Unfortunately, these kinds of issues are omitted from policies and limit the rate of change in available play spaces.

Medical disabilities may hinder a child from engaging in certain kinds of play and limit their exploration and learning through play. Sensory disabilities can restrict the child’s orientation to play precisely to visual and auditory related play. Their disability makes it difficult for them to learn imitation through observation and sometimes in manipulating objects the right way. It also has substantial effects on their interaction with other children and forming bonds through play. Social and emotional disabilities hinder engagement in play, and sometimes these children with disabilities are avoided by other children because of their atypical behavior. When children are fearful of joining in or participating, even that can inhibit their interactions.

Communication disabilities are problematic because they make it difficult for other children to understand them and may inhibit the child from entering a group in the first place. Then, the child may feel misunderstood, and others might have trouble understanding and empathizing. Physical disabilities affect play to the extent of movement restriction. They may thus have problems in using the object or using it the right way and feel excluded from certain types of games. Cognitive disabilities will mostly lead to a delay in or absence of play skills development because of not always understanding the play and its rules and even delivering what is expected of them. They may also have problems engaging in abstract levels of play. There are entirety of types and strategies of play that can help integrate play and play skills with children with disabilities. Playing with the use of toys would include Replica play and symbolic play. The former is where children replicate familiar situations, and the latter is where the child uses an object to represent another. Through parallel play and associative play, the development of social skills can pick up in these groups of children. In the former, children play side by side, and in the latter, children play with each other in an everyday focused activity.

Children with a chronic illness may have challenges to play and play development. Stimulating play can enhance a child’s adaptability to stressful conditions. Play can be used to develop interventions for children to better cope with illness and stimulate healthy development. There are many benefits of play for children with disabilities. These children benefit from strong emotional bonds and connections with their peers. Excluding play from the lives of children with disabilities can result in consequences such as unhealthy complications in children and an increase in psychological and behavioral problems, further resulting in neurological dysfunction and unhappiness and lack of mental well-being.

Understanding Play in Context: The Ecosystems Approach

How individuals interact with the external environment at different levels of society determines their developmental and psychological outcomes. The ecological systems theory explains the child’s development in the context of the relationships formed in the environment. Developed by Bronfenbrenner, the ecological systems theory is the foundation of understanding how the environment plays a role in each individual’s journey (Bronfenbrenner, 1992; Darling, 2007; Ryan, 2001). There are five levels of the environment that an individual is a part of or is influenced and impacted by—the Microsystem, Mesosystem, Exosystem, Macrosystem, and Chronosystem. Play is impacted by the interactions that take place within and between the systems. In this section, play is understood in the five systems part of the ecosystems theory. For instance, the microsystem can depict primary caregivers interacting with their child in the form of play.

The Microsystem—Adult Perspectives on Play

Play strengthens parent–child bonds and helps in better outcomes for both parent and child (Lin, 2010). Parent–child play includes pretend play and playing with accessories like dolls, balls, lego, snake and ladder, or developmentally appropriate games. Piskernik and Ruiz (2020) supported that the gender of the parent is not associated with the quality of play. Mothers and fathers tend to show similar standards when they play with their children. The play would create a feeling of a secure environment among children (Ginsburg, 2007). Quality playtime with children is equally essential as quality study time, especially in a world where it is hard to maintain a work–life balance.

It is essential to provide children with free spaces to play to develop healthy self-esteem, self-respect, physique, cognition, and emotion. Many parents who are worried about the safety and well-being of their children with respect to engaging in risky play behaviors (McFarland & Laird, 2018) may feel that children should not play on concrete grounds because they may slip and fall. For example, parents might not want their children to play on playgrounds because the sand is dirty. But then resilience, risk-taking, cooperation and competitive spirit, socialization, building muscles, strengthening bones, and fostering imagination, creativity, independence will happen only when play spaces and the child’s playfulness is not suppressed (Boreham & Riddoch, 2001; Gray, 2019). When a child’s activity is not recognized and is viewed negatively, by saying that play is a waste of time, these vital functions will either develop very late or might not develop to the extent that it is appropriate for the child’s age. Parents tend to put pressure on academic performance (Deb et al., 2012) and may consider play as a luxury.

A comparative study of Euro-American and Asian preschool children revealed the cultural differences in the concept of play among parents and children (Parmar et al., 2004). While Euro-American parents consider playing necessary for a child’s development, Asian parents give less importance. It reflects in their activities. For example, Asian parents prefer educational toys, while Euro-American parents prefer fun toys. A study conducted by Roopnarine et al. (1990) among infants and their parents found that Indian parents emphasize affection rather than play. Parents tend to show love, while they spend time with their infants rather than playing with them. Alongside, teachers suggest that the students from Asian backgrounds also learn to use thank you and sorry words after they start preschool.

The Mesosystem—School and Play

The philosophies of mainstream, inclusion, and integrated education in schools hold on to the principle that “together we learn, we learn to live together”.

Play helps in fostering the child’s active engagement and helps create their imaginary world. The preschool period is vital for children because they start to interact with people other than family members (Ashiabi, 2007; Azlina & Zulkiflee, 2012). So, preschools should promote play and include more play-related activities in their curriculum. Children would learn more through play-based activities in preschool. It has been observed that play-based learning may decrease once children start to go to school. Movement is essential to learning. Children learn, understand better, and retain their attention for longer when not restricted to one particular place. Children’s play and activities in preschool time impact their lives (Cools et al., 2009). Free play helps the children move according to their wishes and increases creativity, self-confidence, and independence. Lately, even preschools are overwhelmed with academic activities, and children cannot find free time to play outdoors. Parents and educators stress children’s academic achievements.

There are instances and situations where teachers use punishment and negative comments that can affect a child and create a sense of doubt within them. While it is challenging to manage so many students single-handedly, it is vital to understand the root of children’s restlessness. They have all this energy that is not being utilized in play. It is concerning when even children in kindergarten spend time on tasks such as reading, recall, and writing rather than our usual understanding of kindergarten where children play with themselves and others and learn through playing.

The “No Child Left Behind” Act (Simpson et al., 2004) in the USA makes the early school curriculum achievement-oriented rather than play-oriented (Zigler et al., 2004). Studies show that it causes academic stress among kindergarten teachers and students as well. The concept of free play and imaginary play has disappeared from the kindergarten system. Our children are highly packed with academic activities. It is sporadic to find children playing in schools for as long as they want and how they want. Schools provide slots for games and play, but they come with rules and instructions, reducing any scope for free play. For example, in countries like India, play is not a part of schooling. Children are accustomed to instructional activities throughout school life. There is very little importance given to free play. Activities like clay molding, aerobics, and drawing are the preferences in kindergarten; the concept of free play is almost absent. Another important factor that restricts free play is the financial strength of schools to provide equipment, playthings, and even play spaces. Overpopulation leaves barely any free room for consideration of converting it into a play space; the economic status of parents and the school level management might not allow them to afford accessible play areas.

Nowadays, many schools provide play opportunities. Sudbury Valley School in the USA promotes learning through play (Gray, 2011a, b, c). Children are free to learn what interests them. Children within the age group of four years to eighteen years are typically the school-going population. They are free to sit with anyone irrespective of their age. It is not necessary to pass exams or submit weekly assignments. If they need to graduate, then they have to defend a thesis. They independently solve the problems; for example, if there is a bullying situation, children learn how to deal with it on their own. Adults should give them the opportunity and freedom to explore, creating an environment where children are more prone to learn. In most schools, students are seated in a designated seat for the entire day. They take notes, submit homework, and “try” to study and excel in academics. Schools need to work towards maintaining a balance between curricular and cocurricular activities.

The Exosystem—Impact of Technology

Nowadays, children are exposed to video games, mobile phones, and computer games (Marsh, 2010). Many of them prefer gadget games over outdoor, rough and tumble play games. It can affect children’s physical and mental development. There is no denying that technology does have many benefits and has tried being inclusive of play and learning through video and gadget games (Johnson & Christie, 2009). Computer-assisted games help improve a child’s cognitive development (Rieber et al., 1998). It would help to increase self-regulated learning among children. Children exposed to excessive screen time is an area of concern. An increase in screen time leads to several physiological, cognitive, and emotional problems. It has resulted in a significant lack of interest in outdoor play and major health-promoting physical activities. It has led to children being more vulnerable to future health problems, such as obesity. Apart from that, they also increase the risk of being addicted to technology, more prone to aggression and misbehaving. Technology is like a double-edged sword. On the one hand, it still engages children in some form of play, but on the other hand, it robs them away from open, physical, outdoor play. It almost seems like gradually, technology has overruled socially engaging physical play.

A pressing concern regarding play in a contemporary context is the impact of technology on reducing physical activity. With the rise in video games usage and its easy accessibility through smartphones—children are drawn toward the visual world created by computer graphics. Video games are used as a convenient scapegoat for many issues affecting today’s youth and children. There is also an increase in sedentary lifestyles in children (Marsh, 2010). Health experts and parents say that kids need to get up off the couch, put down the video game controller, and start moving around. There is a significant lack of interest in outdoor play and major health-promoting physical activities. It has led to the child’s vulnerability to preventable health problems in the future—such as obesity. Apart from that, they are also vulnerable to technological addiction, aggression, and misbehaviors.

The Macrosystem—Culture and Play

Culture and play are related. Parlakian and Sánchez (2006) mentioned how identifying cultural biases and acknowledging them can enhance an individual’s play. They also explained how people from the same ethnic background can also have differences in how they play. The same article mentioned the implications of cultural knowledge and how it impacts how we view play—how flexible, encouraging or inhibited we are about it. Schools’ and colleges’ curriculums also derive information from the status quo. Most of our play revolves around age-old traditions.

Children naturally play with the materials available for them in their surroundings. Some play with marbles, kites, while some play with natural objects in the environment. Depending on the surroundings and availability of resources, children engage in various activities. These traditional games were designed based on the growth and development needed for the specific region to ensure survival. For example, if a child resides in a sandy place, s/he should have a good grip and balance to avoid falling and getting hurt.

Play is subjective to the context and hence is different in different cultures. If you pick up any community-based game that you thought was exclusively only part of your culture, you might find different versions of the game elsewhere. For instance, during the hunter-gatherer stage, children used to play with sticks and run around, and today you see them play a similar game, except it is mainly on a computer screen. Cultural differences in social interactions between adults and children influence how a child presents themselves in a social setting. Play involves interactions in a sociocultural environment. European-American culture provides self-focused narratives in play, whereas several Asian communities emphasize relations and family traditions over the self. Play is viewed as both a reflection of cultural mastery and a mechanism through which children acquire the cultural values with which they construct and reconstruct their daily interactions.

The Macrosystem—Community and Play

As the concept of nuclear families is popularized, it increases the chances of children being alone at home and left to play by themselves. A child playing alone has only so much scope, thus limiting the options or access to various types of play. It hampers the opportunity of developing social skills while playing. If you ask your grandparents about their childhood, it would be so common to hear joint family stories and how fun it was always to have siblings and relatives to play with. Subramanian, Bandyopadhyay, & Jana (2019) elaborate how urban India faces a splurge in residential and industrial buildings—making it scarce for children to play. Uprooting buildings and large-scale housing projects have taken away most open spaces to accommodate the rising population. It has affected possible play spaces for children residing in that locality. Connecting the tedious construction process poses many risk factors for children to be playing freely in the open. Parents are hesitant to send their children outside their homes, restricting play to a safe and supervised boundary. While safety is prioritization and concern, it impacts the development and psychological well-being of children (Little et al., 2011).

The Macrosystem—Play as a Right

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) considers play as a fundamental right of every child (Freeman, 2009). Right to play and recreation are largely neglected, and children’s voices are not heard while designing or implementing these rights (Harcourt & Hägglund, 2013). Most community members do not consider that children have rights (Deb et al., 2016). Play spaces are also shrinking in most communities. There have been environmental and social movements to protect play spaces.

Play as a Therapy Tool

Play is therapeutic by itself. It has been established as a therapeutic approach in the field of psychotherapy. It is considered one of the effective interventions in child psychotherapy (Ray et al., 2001). It is commonly used as a treatment approach for trauma and abuse related concerns (Reyes & Asbrand, 2005), developmentally delayed (Guarton & McCarthy, 2008), and behaviorally maladaptive (Packman & Bratton, 2003) children. Play therapy is formed on the belief that play can be cathartic when engaged in it (Leblanc & Ritchie, 2001). Free play is effective for marginalized and vulnerable children and those with emotional difficulties as well. Research identifies that children who are deprived of free play tend to develop psychosocial problems. Retrospective research identifies that people who were less exposed to play had antisocial and maladaptive behaviors.

Play helps children and youth as a coping strategy for those who are the victims of domestic violence and abuse. Interviews conducted among children and youth belonging to the age group of eight to eighteen reflect children and adolescents who are exposed to domestic violence and abuse tend to go away from houses and play with their friends in open spaces or at friends’ houses (Fellin et al., 2019). Play is seen to help children cope with anxieties and conflicts (Warren et al., 2000). Because tensions are relieved in play, children can cope with present problems. Play helps children to release physical energy and pent-up tensions.

Decline of Play

A report from the United Kingdom found that children spend, on average, four hours per week playing outside, as opposed to their parents who reported spending just over eight hours per week playing outside as children. (The National Trust, 2016 as cited in Burr et al., 2019)

Long gone are the days where all the children in the neighborhood would come out and play. Current generation play is limited to video games and mobile games (Wang et al., 2014; Subramanian et al., 2016). The SARS-CoV2 pandemic and lockdown have increased the dependence on the internet (Masaeli & Farhadi, 2021; Zhu, 2021). Children love to play using gadgets rather than outdoor or indoor games. There has been an unfortunate decline in outdoor play (Dickey et al., 2016). Schools and parents are additionally giving more importance to academic activities rather than to playing (Ashiabi, 2007; Miller & Almon, 2009). Parents are also focusing on the child’s future and academics, affecting children’s physical and mental state. When you look at kindergarten education lately, it focuses more on a child’s reading and writing skills, even though its purpose was for social interaction and preparation for school. Play is given less importance. Schools allot only forty-five-minute intervals once or twice a week for students to go out and play. That limited time also contains instructions from the teachers. They are not allowed to play on their own. Free play is neglected. Do schools then foster the play or try to decline the play? They do not realize that play and academic success are not mutually exclusive (e.g., Isenberg & Quisenberry, 2002; Overstreet, 2018; Wood, 2009; Wood & Attfield, 2005).

According to Peter Gray, play is the natural condition for learning; play is educational. A child would learn to learn, teach, and be a socially interactive person through play. Play helps the child to be creative. Children who play more in their childhood days are more capable and intelligent when they transition to adolescents and adulthood when compared to the children whose academics get more attention in their childhood. The decline of play leads to several psychological and mental health issues. It would lead to depression, anxiety, anger, and so on. Lack of self-control and emotional regulation is also a result of the declining play. Childhood obesity, for example, is a result of declining children’s outdoor play (Fjørtoft, 2001). The decline of play also leads to psychopathology (Gray, 2011a, b, c; Ginsburg, 2007).

The increased focus on academic rigor and competition has affected the time children should ideally spend exploring themselves. There is minimal scope for creativity with a lot of time spent on routine cocurricular and extracurricular activities such as dance, music, karate, abacus classes for children. The scope of free movement-play is yet again restricted by emphasizing setting targets and winning competitions. Previous studies show that over the last 20 years, there has been an increase in the rate of participation in extracurricular activities. There is evidence of the effect of excessive amounts of scheduled activities for children, producing detrimental outcomes (Rosenfeld & Wise, 2001; Thompson & Barker, 2004 as cited in Burr et al., 2019). Parents are often unaware of the importance of freedom for children and end up micromanaging their activities.

The education system noticed a shift in the focus on teaching more specific academic skills that would qualify their students to enroll in competitive and aptitude-based exams that are more achievement-oriented. This shift has relegated play to a marginalized position, sparing early childhood curricula that once held a dominant role (Holmes et al., 2006; Baumer & Radsliff, 2009; Miller & Almon, 2009; Nicolopoulou, 2010; Azlina & Zulkiflee, 2012; Overstreet, 2018; Tobin & Kurban, 2018). Brown (2018) studied being play deprived can have negative consequences on early child development. Long-term impacts of play deprivation during early child development include loneliness, anxiety, depression, poor self-control, and lower levels of resilience (Clark et al., 2016; Gray, 2011a, b, c; Wilson & Christensen, 2012). Another rising concern among children is weight gain and poor physical well-being due to inactivity from not playing (Farley et al., 2007; Herrington & Brussoni, 2015). Children who find themselves unable to play because of difficult home settings may have difficulty forming social bonds. Play facilitates development of complex social and emotional learning experiences.

Play deprivation during early childhood is correlated with the predilection of felons for violent, antisocial criminal activities stemming from aggression (Dickey et al., 2016). The research suggested that the play experience of homicidal individuals was vastly different from that of others as their childhood was typically characterized by isolation, abuse, or bullying. On the other hand, when the first interactions of a mother with the child are interrupted or do not occur, it could also lead to disrupted development. The child grows up perceiving the world as threatening and unsafe, which makes them less ready for play. Play-deprived children may have more explosive reactions to circumstances rather than a sense of belonging and engage in automatic and repetitive activities in later childhood and fail to engage socially (Overstreet, 2018).

Over the years, despite the awareness of the importance of play, it is on a decline (Holmes et al., 2006). To support this statement, Jung and Jin (2014) reported in their research that even when teachers and future professionals are trained with a play inclusive approach for classroom settings yet are not seen or able to implement them. The hurried lifestyle has led to more highly scheduled timelines for children, and this causes anxiety and stress in some. The caregivers overschedule a child’s playtime, causing activities to be rigid and may not allow them to explore their interest areas. With an increase in technology, children are starting to prefer staring at screens rather than engaging in rough and tumble play, lucid and imaginative play. Children spend their prime years living a sedentary lifestyle involving less physical, cognitive activity, and low socio-emotional interactions. Even schools are cutting down on children’s playtime to increase academic activities (Azlina & Zulkiflee, 2012).

Children are at work when they play. The play has a significant role in child development and learning. It is the right of every child to play. Student mental health in schools has become a serious concern (Suldo et al., 2014). Schools and teachers have many objectives to meet every new program is left to the schools to implement. There is existing pressure from systems and institutions to meet short-term achievement goals and outcomes that result in perceiving the role of play than to be unimportant (Bodrova & Leong, 2003 as cited in Jung & Jin, 2014; Holmes et al., 2006). The supposed rat race that is perceived as life begins even earlier now that children, youth, and adults end up in a vicious pressure cycle of completing tasks. Parents also put a lot of expectation and pressure on school systems. Parents who tend to be involved in their children’s education and learning help create an environment of tremendous success, competence, achievements, and lesser dropout rates (Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2005). At times, these well-intentioned involvements can pressure the child to perform better and reach set goals while also ensuring schools and teachers focus more on academic orientation, goals, and achievements. While the intention can be in the best interests of their children, children end up facing increased academic stress and pressure.

Future of Play

  1. 1.

    To ensure the existence of play in future classrooms, current and upcoming teachers need to be trained and familiarized with teaching in a play positive environment. Their styles would then be shaped by their preparation to enter the field of teaching and their personal experiences and beliefs on play (Jung & Jin, 2014).

  2. 2.

    Research has shown that engaging in play at work has improved the well-being of employees and helps reduce stress and burnout. At the same time, it increases job satisfaction and a sense of competence in employees at the workplace. It helps in fostering a creative mind-set for ideas and opportunities and is beneficial in problem solving. The Conservations of Resources theory is based on motivation and social support (Hobfoll et al., 1990), adopted to understand the depletion of energy resources in individuals in various contexts. Play as a medium could increase and regulate psychological and psychosocial resources within their employees (Petelczyc et al., 2017).

  3. 3.

    Despite the rapid development of infrastructure and technology in major urban hubs, there is scope for generating inclusive play spaces in suitable areas as natural playgrounds present opportunities to connect with nature. There is great value placed on the direct learning experiences while interacting with nature (Wang et al., 2018).

  4. 4.

    Training and educating parents on increasing positive therapeutic interactions between parent and child is seen to be adequate to help with emotional difficulties or behavioral concerns (Post et al., 2011; Leblanc & Ritchie, 2001). When parents engage in play activities with their children, their bond increases and opens the door to understanding and resolving concerns. It allows the parent to teach the child appropriate behavior and socially accepted interaction. It could help in restoring a work–life balance at home during the lockdown as well.

Conclusion

Observing children or adults at play can help us identify the cognitive and affective processes expressed in play behavior. Cultural practices, rituals, literature, art, poetry, music, and dancing have evolved from play. The play has nurtured human civilization and interaction. “Being in play” is not a polar opposite of working, and vice versa as opposed to the infamous quote, “All play/work and no work/play makes jack a dull boy” (Ferreira & Esteves, 2013; Overstreet, 2018). Playfulness can be a creative, joyful, and innovative way of approaching life wherein we are less stressed, able to explore ways of solving problems, self-directed, intrinsically motivated, and use our imaginations to reach our goals (Gray, 2019). Both Holzman (2014) and Chon (2013), in their TEDx talks titled “Play Helps us Grow at any Age” and “The Importance of Play”, respectively, mentioned that when we are in play, we indulge without the constant worry of messing up or being wrong.

Unfortunately, most studies and discussions about children’s play have been through the adults’ lens. Lately, there are increasing efforts for the voices and opinions of children to be heard in such areas that are about them and affect them directly. We would understand their point of view and perspective on the increased pressure from parents and school to focus on academics and live a hurried life. Overall, it is necessary to engage in play across the lifespan, for there is no age limit to having fun. Play thus has enormous implications for the development of society as they learn gendered, societal, and cultural norms and behaviors from their personalized manifestation of play.

Recommendations

Throughout the chapter, we have seen the many benefits of engaging in play. Play is free, flexible, and each one’s need and right. Play has no limit based on age, gender, ethnicity, race, disability, or other challenges. By acting as a medium or a tool, it helps individuals learn, socialize, work, and so on. Play, in general, has taken a significant step back from being an essential part of childhood through adult leisure. Individuals are more focused on being ahead of this fast-paced lifestyle that they have not realized the consequences of yet. Academicians can learn how to integrate play and play-based techniques in teaching and education. Practitioners can promote the existing evidence on the positive impact of play and its effect on well-being. Play and play therapy are effective mediums, tools, and therapeutic approaches for many psychological, physiological, and psychosocial constraints. Policymakers and community members need to know the need and power of play and play spaces to prevent them from becoming extinct.