Abstract
The recent political history of the Islamic Republic of Iran displays six important features, which are still driving the country’s decision-making system: (1) the cultural legacy of the Persian civilization; (2) the attempts to construct a constitutional monarchy (1905–1911) and the declaration of Shiism as the state religion in 1907; (3) the difficult relations of the autocratic Pahlavi monarchy with clerics, and the regime’s difficult relations with the US; (4) the fact that Iran was and still is a nexus of international interests, namely from US, UK, and Russian perspectives; (5) the 1979 revolution, which built on the ‘steam cooker pan’ legacy of inequalities, strengthened the reputation of clerics, alongside a political system dominated by the Shiite theocratic principle Vilayat-i-faqih; and (6) the extreme national hardship imposed by international sanctions (since 1979) and the Iraq invasion (1980–1988). Bearing these six characteristics in mind, this chapter aims to shed light on the political consequences of refuting secularism and building a political system dominated by theological beliefs and a hegemonic clergy. We argue that the political system of Iran presents an apparent theocratic hybridization, combining democratic and religious representation. In terms of methodology, this study presents a theoretical-inductive and non-partisan perspective, combining qualitative, semi-structured interviews, and non-participant observation. This chapter is organized in the following sections: (1) Abstract; (2) Introduction; (3) The Conflictual Narratives on Iran; (4) The Construction of the Political Iran; (5) The Apparent Hybridity of the Iranian Political System; (6) Conclusion; (7) Bibliography.
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Notes
- 1.
Amnesty International—Iran 2019. Retrieved in August 2020, from https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/middle-east-and-north-africa/iran/report-iran/.
- 2.
Retrieved in August 2020, from https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/iran/terrorism.
- 3.
Retrieved in August 2020, from https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/ntas/alerts/20_0104_ntas_bulletin.pdf.
- 4.
- 5.
“Iran” and “Persia” are synonymous. The former has always been used by the Iranian-speaking peoples themselves, while the latter has served as the international name of the country in various languages.
- 6.
Among other cultural and religious aspects of the Persian civilization is the principle Velayat-e faqih, which is deeply rooted in Shia Islam, and as we shall explain later, became a dominant concept in the Iranian political system. The Velayat-e faqih principle has historically been applied to justify limited clerical guardianship over vulnerable popular groups incapable of protecting their own interests, namely widows, orphans, and the disabled.
- 7.
A mujtahid is a person who has the ability to deduce jurisprudential rulings and has, through this process, deduced the majority of jurisprudential rulings (Mishkīnī, Mīrzā ʿAlī. Iṣtilāḥāt al-uṣūl. Sixth edition. Qom: al-Hādī, 1416 AH, p. 19).
- 8.
According to Alem (2011, p. 46) ‘The constitutional amendment of 1989 changed Iran’s political structure dramatically. The post of prime minister was abolished and the president, elected by a direct popular vote, became the head of the executive branch.’
- 9.
Retrieved in August 2020, from https://irandataportal.syr.edu/constitutions-and-constitutional-debates. Details of the constitutional referenda are here: https://irandataportal.syr.edu/referenda.
- 10.
Retrieved in August 2020, from https://aceproject.org/electoral-advice/archive/questions/replies/981474880.
- 11.
Retrieved in August 2020, from https://www.electionguide.org/countries/id/103/.
- 12.
Kurum, 2019, p. 119 and “تعداد نمایندگان مجلس خبرگان رهبری افزایش یافت” (in Persian). Iranian Students’ News Agency (2 September 2015).
- 13.
Retrieved on 13 August 2020, from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2016/02/24/why-irans-assembly-of-experts-election-is-the-real-race-to-be-watching/.
- 14.
Also designated as the leader of the Islamic Revolution and the Custodian of the Affairs of the Muslims of the world.
- 15.
Retrieved in August 2020, from https://www.ipu.org/parliament/IR.
- 16.
Retrieved on 22 August 2020, from https://irandataportal.syr.edu/political-parties.
- 17.
Retrieved in August 2020, from https://aceproject.org/electoral-advice/archive/questions/replies/981474880. According to Alem (2001, p. 33), the electoral system is based on a modified block vote system, as voters in multi-member districts have as many votes to cast as there are seats to fill. Candidates able to secure at least one-fourth of the votes cast in the first round are elected to the Majlis. Run-off elections are held in districts where one or more seats are left uncontested. The number of candidates who may run in the second round of elections is restricted to twice the number of seats to be filled in a single-member district (i.e. two) and one and a half times the number of seats to be filled in a multimember district. In run-off elections, candidates with the most votes win the contested seats.
- 18.
Retrieved in August 2020, from https://irandataportal.syr.edu/political-institutions/the-expediency-council.
- 19.
Retrieved in August 2020, from https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/tehran/inside/govt.html.
- 20.
Retrieved in August 2020, from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7064353.stm.
- 21.
According to Iran Data Portal, this number may vary. More details at https://irandataportal.syr.edu/assembly-of-experts-elections.
- 22.
Unlimited number of terms. In practice this amounts to a life-long appointment.
- 23.
Limit of two consecutive terms.
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Leandro, F.J.B.S. (2021). Outlays of Iran’s Hegemonic-Hybridized Political System. In: Leandro, F.J.B.S., Branco, C., Caba-Maria, F. (eds) The Geopolitics of Iran. Studies in Iranian Politics. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3564-9_4
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