International Agricultural Trade: Products

Abstract

In recent years, two main trends have been clearly observed in international agricultural trade: a significant increase in the value of trade turnover and a transformation in the composition of both exports and imports in favor of developing countries. However, the intensity of these trends varies depending on the type of agricultural products and the regions of the world. This chapter details changes in the values and compositions of exports and imports of thirteen categories of food and agricultural products (live animals, meat and meat preparations, dairy products and birds’ eggs, fish and crustaceans, cereals and cereal preparations, vegetables and fruits, sugar and honey, coffee and tea, feedstuff for animals, miscellaneous edible products and preparations, beverages and tobacco, oilseeds and oleaginous fruits, and animal and vegetable oils and fats) by eight geographic regions (East Asia and the Pacific, South Asia, Central Asia, Europe, North America, Latin America and the Caribbean, Middle East and North Africa, and Sub-Saharan Africa) and major exporters and importers (197 countries) in 2000–2019.

3.1 International Agricultural Trade by Products: An Overview

As previously noted in Chap. 2, the value of international trade in food and agricultural products has increased significantly over the past two decades. This chapter details changes in the values and compositions of exports and imports of thirteen categories of food and agricultural products by geographic regions and major exporters and importers. According to the SITC Commodity classification (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development [UNCTAD], 2020), the review includes: (1) live animals, (2) meat and meat preparations, (3) dairy products and birds’ eggs, (4) fish, crustaceans, mollusks, and preparations thereof, (5) cereals and cereal preparations, (6) vegetables and fruits, (7) sugar, sugar preparations, and honey, (8) coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and manufactures thereof, (9) feedstuff for animals, (10) miscellaneous edible products and preparations, (11) beverages and tobacco, (12) oilseeds and oleaginous fruits, and (13) animal and vegetable oils, fats, and waxes.

The growth is observed in all thirteen categories of agricultural commodities, including vegetables and fruits (+$412.5 billion in 2019 compared to 2000, or 3.85 times), cereals and cereal preparations (+$270.5 billion, or 3.66 times), and meat and meat preparations (+$214.8 billion, or 3.28 times) (Fig. 3.1). The value of exports of vegetables and fruits has quadrupled from $69.3 billion in 2000 to $280.1 billion in 2019. The composition of international agricultural trade turnover by product has not experienced radical transformations. The largest category by value is vegetables and fruits ($557.2 billion in 2019). Its share in agricultural trade turnover increased by 1.36% points and reached 17.80% in 2019. The second-largest category of agricultural products is cereals and cereal preparations ($372.1 billion, or 11.39%), but its portion in international agricultural trade has not changed significantly in 2000–2019 (Fig. 3.2).

Fig. 3.1

Source Authors’ calculations based on United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2020)

Top five agricultural products by value in international agricultural trade turnover in 2000–2019, $ billion.

Fig. 3.2

Source Authors’ calculations based on United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2020)

Composition of international agricultural trade turnover by product in 2000–2019, %.

The most significant reduction in the portions in international agricultural trade has been observed in the categories of fish, crustaceans, mollusks, and preparations thereof (−2.56% points, a decline from 12.34% in 2000 to 9.79% in 2019) and beverages and tobacco (−2.42% points, a decline from 12.89% to 10.47%, respectively). The contributions of such categories as live animals, meat and meat preparations, dairy products and birds’ eggs, and sugar and honey to the total value of agricultural trade have also declined slightly, while the portions of oilseeds and oleaginous fruits, miscellaneous edible products, and animal and vegetable oils, fats, and waxes have increased by 1.86, 1.84, and 1.2 points, respectively.

3.2 Major Products in International Agricultural Trade

Next, we provide more insight into the dynamics of trade for each of the thirteen categories of agricultural products in terms of geographic regions and leading exporters and importers. The study is carried out across the geographic regions of East Asia and the Pacific (hereinafter referred to as EAP) (35 economies), South Asia, or SA (8 economies), Central Asia, or CA (5 economies), Europe, or EU (44 economies), North America, or NA (4 economies), Latin America and the Caribbean, or LAC (34 economies), Middle East and North Africa, or MENA (20 economies), and Sub-Saharan Africa, or SSA (47 economies) (World Bank, 2020).

3.2.1 Live Animals

The “Live animals” category is the smallest of the thirteen considered in this review in terms of the value of trade turnover, which amounted to $47.2 billion in 2019, or only 1.51% of the total value of the international agricultural trade turnover. At the same time, trade in live animals has grown almost 2.5 times over the past two decades. The main exporter of live animals to the world market is Europe, whose portion in global exports reached 58.19% in 2019 (Fig. 3.3).

Fig. 3.3

Source Authors’ calculations based on United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2020)

Exports of live animals by geographic region, portions in international exports in 2000–2019, %.

The value of live animals exports from Europe amounted to $13.7 billion in 2019, an increase of 2.7 times compared to 2000. However, such significant growth was achieved mainly in 2000–2010. In recent years, it has been slowing down (only + 19.23% in 2019 compared to 2010). North America, the world’s second-largest exporter after Europe, is losing its position in the global market. In 2019, the value of live animals exports from four countries of North America amounted to $3.38 billion, which was only 38% higher than in 2000. Against the background of such a slowdown in exports from developed countries, developing regions of the world are increasing their production and supplies. In terms of dynamics, the highest export growth rates are observed in Latin America (6.59 times, an increase from $123.2 million in 2000 to $811.3 million in 2019), Africa (3.13 times, an increase from $342.6 million to $1.1 billion), and Asia (2.83 times, an increase from $1.1 billion to $3.2 billion). Despite such growth, individual developing countries (except Mexico and occasionally Brazil) have not yet managed to take stable leading positions in the export of live animals. Rahim et al. (2020) and Girmay and Yeserah (2019) assumed that developing countries could lag behind due to various complex issues related to poorer supply chain management, lower safety of maintenance of live animals, lower supply of quality animals, seasonality, and higher health hazards. Developed economies of Europe continue to be the largest suppliers, Australia is increasing its exports, while the USA and Canada have lost several positions in the rating (Table 3.1).

Table 3.1 Top ten exporters of live animals in 2000–2019, $ million

Being the largest exporter of live animals, Europe is also the leading importer of this category of agricultural commodities. Although the share of European countries in global purchases of live animals has decreased significantly since 2010, they still account for about half of the world’s imports, or $11.6 billion. Vlad et al. (2015) explained variation in the value of imports of live animals in Europe by seasonal factors, while Shanafelt and Perrings (2018) and Perrings et al. (2010) underscored the impacts of the increased spread of zoonotic and epizootic diseases on the international trade. North America, Middle East and North Africa, and East Asia and the Pacific all have increased their shares in imports compared to 2010 (Fig. 3.4).

Fig. 3.4

Source Authors’ calculations based on United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2020)

Imports of live animals by geographic region, portions in international imports in 2000–2019, %.

Among individual countries, the USA has been the largest importer of live animals over the past two decades, accounting for 12.95% of global imports in 2019. This is significantly lower than in 2000 (20.14%) and 2010 (13.94%), as many countries have substantially increased their imports, including Germany (almost 6 times from 3.65% of world imports of live animals in 2000 to 8.66% in 2019), the Netherlands (3.6 times from 3.98% to 5.82%, respectively), and Saudi Arabia (2.87 times from 2.59% to 3.02%, respectively) (Table 3.2).

Table 3.2 Top ten importers of live animals in 2000–2019, $ million

In general, despite the permanent leadership of the USA, the composition of the leading importers of live animals is quite dynamic. At the end of two decades, we see that some countries in Western Europe have not increased or have even reduced their purchases (Spain, UK, France), while the fast-growing economies of Eastern Europe (Poland) and Southern Europe (Turkey) have taken the lead. Yego and Siahi (2018) suggested that in Sub-Saharan Africa, trade in live animals could be boosted as one of the consequences of progression trade integration in the region and the establishment of the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, but since 2010, African countries have not increased their share in the global trade turnover.

3.2.2 Meat and Meat Preparations

The “Meat and meat preparations” category is the fifth-largest in the world agricultural trade turnover with a share of 9.76% in 2019 (a decrease by 0.53% points compared to 2000 and by 0.08% points compared to 2010). According to Pandian et al. (2015), major drivers of global trade in meat are the increase in consumer demand due to rising living standards across the developing world, primarily, in China and India, internationalization of tastes and habits, developments in science and technology, and improvements in transportation, supply chains, and logistics. The value of exports exceeded $159.2 billion in 2019, an increase of 3.56 times compared to 2000. The largest exporter of meat products and preparations is the geographic region of Europe, but its share in the total exports has been decreasing steadily since the early 2000s (Fig. 3.5).

Fig. 3.5

Source Authors’ calculations based on United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2020)

Exports of meat and meat preparations by geographic region, portions in international exports in 2000–2019, %.

The countries of Latin America and the Caribbean have made a significant breakthrough in terms of the value of meat exports in recent years. In 2019, the value of meat exports from Latin America amounted to $25.8 billion, more than seven times higher than in 2000. Brazil is the largest exporter of meat and meat preparations among the countries of Latin America and one of the largest in the world (10.25% of global export of meat in 2019 compared to 4.31% in 2000) (Table 3.3). Argentina is the second-largest exporter of meat in the geographic region of Latin America. The country has increased the value of its exports almost fivefold from $791.3 million in 2000 to over $3.8 billion in 2019.

Table 3.3 Top ten exporters of meat and meat preparations in 2000–2019, $ million

The contribution of Asian countries to the total meat exports is also growing, but none of them has so far reached the top-ten level. According to the classification used in this study, the geographic region of East Asia and the Pacific (16.52% in total meat exports) includes Australia and New Zealand, the world’s third and ninth-largest exporters in 2019. Among the countries of East Asia, Thailand and China were the largest exporters in 2019 with $3.8 billion (2.41% of global exports) and $3.1 billion (1.93% of global exports), respectively. South Asia’s meat exports is dominated by India with $3.45 billion in 2019 (91.74% of South Asia’s exports and 2.17% of global exports). Pandian et al. (2015) attributed the expansion of meat exports in India to the substantial increase in domestic production of meat and products, institutional interventions in meat processing, and policy initiatives to bring down tariffs.

Due to the significant exports from India, the geographic region of South Asia is a prominent net exporter of meat (the trade surplus exceeds $3.5 billion, or 90.89% of the turnover). The rest of Asian countries are net importers of meat and meat preparations. The share of East Asia and the Pacific in total meat imports has significantly increased over the decade (Fig. 3.6). According to Galloway et al. (2007), an increase in meat consumption and trade is influenced by favorable income growth, which has been particularly rapid across East Asia in recent decades. Compared to 2010, the value of meat purchases by the countries of East Asia increased by 3.42 times and exceeded $39.3 billion.

Fig. 3.6

Source Authors’ calculations based on United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2020)

Imports of meat and meat preparations by geographic region, portions in international imports in 2000–2019, %.

The world’s largest importer of meat and meat products is Japan, but its share in total international imports of meat dropped from almost twofold from 18.61% in 2000 to 9.68% in 2019. China is rapidly becoming one of the world’s biggest consumers of meat (9.11% of global imports in 2019, compared to 2.23% in 2000 and 1.42% in 2000) (Table 3.4). The link between improving living standards and increased consumption of meat was discussed in Chap. 2. The growth rate of China’s import of meat confirms the findings on the gradual shift of consumption framework in China in favor of more nutrient food products made previously by Zhou (2010), Zhou et al. (2014), Gao et al. (2018), and Chang et al. (2018).

Table 3.4 Top ten importers of meat and meat preparations in 2000–2019, $ million

Apart from the decline in Japan’s share and the rapid increase in China’s purchases, the composition of the global market of meat by country has not changed significantly. The countries of Europe and North America are overwhelmingly net exporters (USA, Germany, Netherlands). Except for some countries in Latin America (Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay) and Asia (India, Thailand), most of developing economies are net importers of meat and meat products.

3.2.3 Dairy Products and Birds’ Eggs

Among thirteen categories of agricultural commodities under consideration in this review, dairy products and birds’ eggs occupy eighth place in terms of the value of trade turnover ($191 billion in 2019, or 6.10% of international agricultural trade). Compared to 2000, this share has decreased slightly. Exports of dairy products and birds’ eggs have more than tripled over the past two decades, reaching $96.3 billion in 2019, 68.2% of which was contributed by European countries. It should be noted that the primacy of Europe in the exports of dairy products and birds’ eggs has been gradually decreasing amid the growth of exports from the regions of East Asia (+$10.9 billion in 2000–2019, or +1.27% points in the composition of total exports), North America (+$4.7 billion, or +2.21% points), and the Middle East and North Africa (+$4.5 billion, or +3.20% points) (Fig. 3.7). This observation well agrees with Chatellier (2016) and Song and Sumner (2005) who found that in recent decades, international trade in milk and dairy products has been favored by growing demand from Asian countries, where dairy consumption per capita remains lower compared to developed countries of Europe and North America.

Fig. 3.7

Source Authors’ calculations based on United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2020)

Exports of dairy products and birds’ eggs by geographic region, portions in international exports in 2000–2019, %.

However, such transformations in the composition of exports by geographic region have not caused radical changes in the group of leading exporters. Over two decades, the ranking has been dominated by European countries even though in 2000–2010, the bulk of milk produced in Europe was consumed within the EU (Benedek et al., 2017). The portions of the Netherlands, Germany, and France in world exports of dairy products and birds’ eggs were 12.48%, 11.16%, and 7.90% in 2019, respectively. Along with Belgium, Denmark, Italy, and Ireland, these three European countries have been consistently making up the group of top exporters. Only two non-European countries among the top ten exporters are New Zealand (10.94% of global exports in 2019) and the USA (5.38%, respectively). The contribution of the former to the composition of global exports increased by 3.93% points in 2000–2019, while that of the latter grew by 2.65% points (Table 3.5). In New Zealand, less than 4% of its milk is consumed within the country (Shadbolt & Apparao, 2016). Therefore, the dairy sector in New Zealand is much more oriented on exports compared to those in the USA and many other milk-producing countries where domestic markets are larger and more receptive.

Table 3.5 Top ten exporters of dairy products and birds’ eggs in 2000–2019, $ million

As Shree et al. (2017) demonstrated, due to the rapid development of globalization and the emergence of international trade in recent decades, there has been a paradigm shift in the global dairy market from being supply-driven to demand-driven. Most of the leading exporters are at the same time the largest importers of dairy products and birds’ eggs. In 2019, the value of imports by European countries exceeded $50.9 billion, which is almost three times more than in 2000. The consumption of dairy products and birds’ eggs by the countries of East Asia and the Pacific has been growing fivefold to $17.4 billion in 2019 from $3.3 billion in 2000. A substantial increase in imports of milk and dairy products by developing countries of Asia on the wave of economic growth in the region correlates with the finding of Haq and Ishaq (2008) who suggested income-related variables to exert the strongest influence on the value of global dairy trade. The shares of other geographic regions in the structure of world imports of dairy products and birds’ eggs have barely changed in recent years (Fig. 3.8).

Fig. 3.8

Source Authors’ calculations based on United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2020)

Imports of dairy products and birds’ eggs by geographic region, portions in international imports in 2000–2019, %.

Among individual countries, the main importer of dairy products and birds’ eggs is Germany. Its share of global imports has hardly changed during the period under review, declining slightly from 9.56% in 2000 to 9.39% in 2019. Unlike Germany, China has been moving up in the ranking since the early 2000s. In 2000, the value of China’s imports amounted to $216.5 million (0.73% of world imports). It had grown almost fivefold to $1.1 billion by 2010 (1.67% of world imports) and then another six times to $6.7 billion by 2019 (7.10% of world imports) (Table 3.6). The shares of other leading importers in the composition of global imports of dairy products and birds’ eggs have changed insignificantly.

Table 3.6 Top ten importers of dairy products and birds’ eggs in 2000–2019, $ million

3.2.4 Fish, Crustaceans, and Mollusks

Fish, crustaceans, mollusks, and preparations thereof are the fourth-biggest category of products in international agricultural trade. Its share in agricultural trade turnover decreased from 12.33% ($108.6 billion) in 2000 to 9.78% ($306.3 billion) in 2019. The value of world exports of fish and other products in this category tripled during 2000–2019 and reached $157.4 billion in 2019. In contrast to the above discussed global markets of live animals, meat and meat preparations, and dairy products, there is no clear primacy of European countries in fish exports. According to Nielsen (2009), the effects of liberalization on fish trade in a particular country or region depend on the status of this country (region) as an importer or exporter, the state of the fish stock, and the portion of the country (region) on the world market of fish and fish products. The two largest exporting regions are Europe ($54.6 billion in 2019) and East Asia and the Pacific ($53.8 billion), while the shares of other regions in global exports of fish, crustaceans, and mollusks are significantly lower (Fig. 3.9).

Fig. 3.9

Source Authors’ calculations based on United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2020)

Exports of fish, crustaceans, and mollusks by geographic region, portions in international exports in 2000–2019, %.

China is well ahead of other countries in terms of the value of fish exports. China’s share of global exports increased from 7.10% in 2000 to 12.76% in 2010, and then to 14.78% in 2019. In addition to China, Vietnam is a major exporter among the countries of East Asia and the Pacific (+3.62% points in the composition of world exports). Thailand has lost its leading position in exports, falling to the fifth position in the list of top ten exporters by 2019 (−4.46% points).

Among the countries of Europe, the main exporters of fish, crustaceans, and mollusks are Norway (+1.35% points), the Netherlands (+0.74% points), and Spain (−0.32% points). In the geographic regions of South Asia and Latin America, where the fisheries sector is one of the most productive and dynamic industries (Shamsuzzaman et al., 2020), the largest exporters are India (+1.62% points) and Chile (+0.88% points), respectively. The portion of North America in the composition of global fish exports has decreased significantly over the past two decades, including due to the decline in the shares of the USA (−2.41% points) and Canada (−1.87% points) (Table 3.7).

Table 3.7 Top ten exporters of fish, crustaceans, and mollusks in 2000–2019, $ million

Despite its position as one of the world’s leading exporters, the region of Europe is still a net importer of fish, crustaceans, and mollusks. In 2019, the value of imports amounted to $60.9 billion and the trade deficit reached $6.3 billion. The shares of Europe and East Asia and the Pacific in world imports are unstable, and significant fluctuations are observed during the period under review (Fig. 3.10). The geographic region of East Asia as a whole is a net exporter of fish, but several countries are large net importers. For example, in Japan, the fish trade deficit amounted to $12.6 billion in 2019, in South Korea—$3.7 billion, and in Singapore—$759.3 million. The regions of Sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East and North Africa have also increased imports of fish. This trend confirms the recent observation of Nankwenya et al. (2018) and Guedri and Chakour (2015) that the demand for fish across Africa has grown to the level where current production has failed to meet it.

Fig. 3.10

Source Authors’ calculations based on United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2020)

Imports of fish, crustaceans, and mollusks by geographic region, portions in international imports in 2000–2019, %.

The region of North America is also a major importer of fish, crustaceans, and mollusks. The value of North America’s imports has more than doubled since the beginning of the 2000s to more than $26.5 billion in 2019. The deficit increased from $4.9 billion in 2000 to $14.8 billion in 2019. However, it should be noted that the entire amount of trade deficit is accounted for the USA, while the remaining countries of North America are net exporters of fish and aquatic products. The share of the USA in global imports of fish decreased from 17.32% in 2000 to 15.49% in 2019, but the country remains the world’s biggest consumer well ahead of Japan, China, and some European countries (Table 3.8).

Table 3.8 Top ten importers of fish, crustaceans, and mollusks in 2000–2019, $ million

3.2.5 Cereals and Cereal Preparations

Cereals, including wheat, rice, corn, and barley, are essential elements of diets (Garkusha & Beybalaeva, 2019; Pospelova, 2019), as well as the traditional basis of cuisines in many countries. Under the influence of both natural and climatic factors (Nistor et al., 2010) and socio-cultural preferences of people in different parts of the world, a certain specialization in the production of particular crops has developed (Erokhin, 2020; Sobolev, 2019). With the development of international trade, natural agricultural advantages were transformed into the economic specialization of countries in the world market as producers, exporters, and importers of various crops (Dupas et al., 2019; Erokhin et al., 2014; Shurenkova, 2019).

The “Cereals and cereal preparations” category is the second-largest in international agricultural trade in terms of turnover value. In 2019, the trade turnover reached $360.4 billion, an increase of 3.72 times compared to 2000 and by 39.67% compared to 2010. Over two decades, the value of cereals exports increased 3.66 times and reached $180.9 billion in 2019, including $83.9 billion in Europe, $34.2 billion in North America, $23.6 billion in East Asia and the Pacific, and $20.9 billion in Latin America and the Caribbean (Fig. 3.11).

Fig. 3.11

Source Authors’ calculations based on United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2020)

Exports of cereals and cereal preparations by geographic region, portions in international exports in 2000–2019, %.

Today, almost half of the world’s cereals production is provided by developing countries in Asia, mainly China, India, and Indonesia. Specialization in the production of certain types of cereals, however, is not always translated into an export competitive advantage in the world market. Thus, China and India, the world’s largest wheat producers, use produced cereals mainly for domestic consumption (Erokhin, 2019). Ten leading producer countries provide more than 67% of the world’s gross output of cereals, but the composition of cereals output by crops varies depending on the region. In Asia, rice dominates in the structure of gross cereals output (73.3% in Indonesia and 54.2% in India).

The USA and the countries of Latin America are prominent producers of corn. In the geographic region of Europe, countries are more focused on the production of wheat (Russia and France). The leading exporters of cereals are the USA (11.56% of international supply of cereals and cereal preparations in 2019), France (6.32%), and Canada (6.29%) (Table 3.9).

Table 3.9 Top ten exporters of cereals and cereal preparations in 2000–2019, $ million

It should be noted that the share of major suppliers in the global market has decreased. The USA, France, and Canada have lost 10.85, 4.65, and 1.92% points in 2019 compared to 2000, respectively. At the same time, the value of exports from developing countries is growing, including in Russia (from 0.34% of the global cereals market in 2000 to 5.82% in 2019), Brazil (from 0.13 to 4.43%), and Ukraine (from 0.31 to 4.82%).

The geography of cereals supplies is very wide. There is no distinct largest consumer among importing countries. Significant volumes are exported to Europe ($60.0 billion in 2019, a threefold growth compared to 2000), East Asia and the Pacific ($38.6 billion, a fourfold increase), and the countries of the Middle East and North Africa ($32.6 billion, a threefold increase) (Fig. 3.12).

Fig. 3.12

Source Authors’ calculations based on United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2020)

Imports of cereals and cereal preparations by geographic region, portions in international imports in 2000–2019, %.

Until the 2010s, Japan was the world’s largest importer of cereals and cereal preparations, but it had lost its leadership by 2019. Currently, the USA, China, and Japan taken together account for 14.73% of global imports of cereals (Table 3.10). Traditionally large importers of cereals are the countries of Europe. Germany, the Netherlands, and the UK account for 3.55%, 3.05%, and 2.84% of global cereals imports in 2019, respectively. In the region of the Middle East and North Africa, the largest importers of cereals are Egypt (2.81% of global imports of cereals in 2019) and Saudi Arabia (2.58%), in Latin America—Brazil (1.53%) and Colombia (0.98%), in Sub-Saharan Africa—Nigeria (1.15%) and South Africa (0.64%). Geographic regions and individual countries specialize in the production of certain types of crops. Thus, rice production is concentrated in East and South Asia, wheat production—in Asia and Europe, corn production—in North America (mainly, the USA), and barley production—in Europe. China, USA, and India produce about half of the total world’s output of cereals, but among the main producers, the output has been growing in India and Indonesia only. In other countries, it has been either fluctuating (USA, Russia, France, Ukraine) or even decreasing (China).

Table 3.10 Top ten importers of cereals and cereal preparations in 2000–2019, $ million

The largest producers of cereals are not necessarily the largest exporters. Such a situation is typical for many developing countries, for which ensuring the stability of domestic food supply and achieving food security targets are extremely important (Baskov et al., 2019; Pasara & Diko, 2020).

3.2.6 Vegetables and Fruits

As noted previously in Sect. 3.1, vegetables and fruits are the most valuable group of agricultural products in international trade. Also, this category is characterized by the most dynamic growth among all types of food and agricultural products considered in the study. During 2000–2019, the trade turnover of vegetables and fruits increased by 5.57 times and reached $549.0 billion. Exports quadrupled from $69.3 billion in 2000 to $185.3 billion in 2010 and then to $280.1 billion in 2019. The largest exporters of vegetables and fruits are European countries, but their share in world exports has been steadily declining since the early 2000s (Fig. 3.13). Such deceleration could be associated with either the slowdown of vegetable and fruit production or the decline in the food processing industry across Europe during the 2000s, as reported by Domján and Fekete Farkas (2011). In terms of value, exports from Europe tripled during the period under review, while the value of supplies from the geographic region of East Asia and the Pacific grew almost sevenfold.

Fig. 3.13

Source Authors’ calculations based on United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2020)

Exports of vegetables and fruits by geographic region, portions in international exports in 2000–2019, %.

Europe as a whole is a net importer of vegetables and fruits, but some countries act as net exporters on the world market. The largest exporters of vegetables and fruits among European countries are the Netherlands (8.43% of world exports in 2019), Spain (7.41%), and Belgium (3.41%). The USA, the world’s largest exporter for many years, has been gradually losing its leadership position in the market amid rapid growth in exports from China. In 2000, the share of the USA in international supplies of vegetables and fruits was 11.74%. It had fallen to 9.63% by 2010 and then to 9.04% by 2019. China, on the contrary, increased its contribution to global exports of vegetables and fruits from 4.76% in 2000 to 8.63% in 2010 and then to 9.98% in 2019. Azam and Shafique (2018) attributed such rapid growth of exports to China’s accession to the WTO in 2001, as well as the expansion of domestic production due to the increasing level of income and consumer demand.

Several “new” countries have made a breakthrough to top ten world’s exporters, including Vietnam (from 0.59% of the global exports in 2000 to 2.94% in 2019), Chile (from 2.22 to 2.63%), and Turkey (from 2.60 to 2.87%) (Table 3.11).

Table 3.11 Top ten exporters of vegetables and fruits in 2000–2019, $ million

As mentioned above, Europe is a net importer of vegetables and fruits, including organic farming products (Pérez-Flores et al., 2020). Thus, being the world’s main exporter, the geographic region of Europe is also the largest importer, while the domination of Europe in global imports of vegetables and fruits is much more pronounced compared to that in exports (Fig. 3.14).

Fig. 3.14

Source Authors’ calculations based on United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2020)

Imports of vegetables and fruits by geographic region, portions in international imports in 2000–2019, %.

Similar to the declining trend revealed for Europe’s portion in the composition of global exports, the share of European countries in global imports of vegetables and fruits has been decreasing, but the trade deficit has been growing. Imports exceeded exports by $9.7 billion in 2000. The deficit had increased to $15.9 billion by 2010 and then to $25.7 billion by 2019. The deficit-turnover ratio declined from 13.07% in 2000 to 10.78% in 2019, which indicates a slight improvement in Europe’s self-sufficiency in vegetables and fruits.

Among the world’s leading consumers of vegetables and fruits, the largest net importers in the geographic region of Europe are Germany, UK, France, and Russia, while the Netherlands and Belgium both enjoy a significant excess of exports over imports. Among other regions of the world, it is necessary to emphasize the strong leadership of the USA as the main importer of vegetables and fruits since the early 2000s. The USA’s share in world imports increased from 12.23% in 2000 to 14.70% in 2019. In recent years, China has become an increasingly large consumer of vegetables and fruits, with the value of imports growing twenty-five times from $524.4 million in 2000 (0.70% of world imports) to $12.9 billion in 2019 (4.66% of world imports) (Table 3.12). The emergence of China and other developing countries as importers of vegetables and fruits accords to the suggestion of Sonntag et al. (2016) that exporters tend to deliver their products to Asian countries, where maximum residue levels are higher, while phytosanitary regulations are lower. Due to stringent food standards in combination with stagnating production, the markets of developed countries are becoming less attractive in comparison to Asia and other developing regions.

Table 3.12 Top ten importers of vegetables and fruits in 2000–2019, $ million

3.2.7 Sugar and Honey

The “Sugar, sugar preparations, and honey” category contributed only 2.86% to the composition of the international agricultural trade turnover. Since the beginning of the 2000s, the value of trade in sugar and honey has almost tripled to $89.6 billion, but the portion of the category in agricultural trade has decreased by 0.65% points. By 2019, the value of sugar and honey exports had reached $43.5 billion, while the structure of exports by region has undergone significant fluctuations over the past two decades. Among the geographic regions of the world, only East Asia and the Pacific has managed to steadily increase the value of sugar exports and strengthen its market position, while the portions of European and Latin American countries in global exports of sugar and honey have significantly decreased compared to the levels of 2000–2010 (Fig. 3.15).

Fig. 3.15

Source Authors’ calculations based on United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2020)

Exports of sugar and honey by geographic region, portions in international exports in 2000–2019, %.

Both Europe and Latin America are net exporters of sugar and honey. Brazil leads the world as the largest supplier of sugar and sugar products. The value of Brazil’s sugar exports quadrupled during the period under review. The country’s share of global sugar exports rose sharply from 8.89% in 2000 to 27.56% in 2010, before falling to 12.44% in 2019. Among Latin American countries, Guatemala, Colombia, Cuba, Argentina, and Nicaragua also specialize in export of sugar (Rocha, 2010), but the combined supply of these five countries account for less than half of Brazil’s exports. Among European countries, Germany is placed consistently high in the ranking of top ten exporters of sugar (6.09% of world exports in 2019), while France and Belgium have lost 5.18 and 1.99% points, respectively, in the composition of world exports during 2000–2019. The geographic regions of East Asia and the Pacific and South Asia are net importers of sugar and honey, but there has been a significant increase in supplies from these regions due to several leading net exporters. Thailand’s share of world supplies of sugar has remained high for many years, while China and India have only recently managed to enter the top ten ranking. China’s share in global exports increased from 2.17% in 2000 to 5.54% in 2019, while that of India skyrocketed from 0.55 to 4.78%, respectively (Table 3.13).

Table 3.13 Top ten exporters of sugar and honey in 2000–2019, $ million

The composition of shares in imports of sugar and honey between geographic regions is almost similar to that in exports. Despite the fact that by 2019, the region of Europe had become a net exporter of sugar, the surplus achieved was rather modest ($0.3 billion, or 1% of the trade balance). During the 2000s and 2010s. Europe had a deficit in global sugar trade ($0.8 billion in 2000 and $2.0 billion in 2010). Europe’s portion in the composition of global imports of sugar and honey is declining as purchases by countries of East Asia, North America, and Sub-Saharan Africa are increasing (Fig. 3.16). All these regions are pronounced net importers of sugar. In the region of East Asia and the Pacific, the value of imports has quadrupled over the past two decades from $2.7 billion in 2000 to $9.3 billion in 2019. In Africa, it grew by 51.93% from $5.18 billion in 2000 to $7.87 billion in 2019 (although, according to Ungaya and Malenya (2018), domestic production of sugar is heavily supported across Africa), while in North America, it slightly increased by 7.68% from $13.7 billion to $14.7 billion, respectively.

Fig. 3.16

Source Authors’ calculations based on United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2020)

Imports of sugar and honey by geographic region, portions in international imports in 2000–2019, %.

The USA has been the largest importer of sugar since the early 2000s. Its share of global imports increased from 9.60% in 2000 to 10.62% in 2019 (Table 3.14).

Table 3.14 Top ten importers of sugar and honey in 2000–2019, $ million

Regarding other top ten importers, there is a tendency to shift imports from Europe to Asia. Thus, despite comparative advantages in sugar trade documented by many scholars (for instance, Smutka et al. (2019)), European countries have lost their positions as leading importers, including Russia (the portion in global imports declined from 7.20% in 2000 to 1.18% in 2019), the UK (a decline from 6.77% to 3.32%), and France (a decline from 3.41% to 2.37%). At the same time, amid not very efficient regulatory interventions in the domestic production of sugar and problems in the institutional framework for trade policymaking (Stapleton, 2006), many countries of East and South Asia have substantially increased their purchases, for example, Indonesia (from 2.48% in global imports of sugar and honey in 2000 to 4.04% in 2019), China (from 1.09 to 3.35%), and Bangladesh (from 0.42 to 2.49%).

3.2.8 Coffee, Tea, and Spices

Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and manufactures thereof are one of the most valuable agricultural products traded in the international market. Since 2000, the value of turnover of this category of foodstuffs has increased by 3.67 times and amounted to $214.1 billion in 2019. For many countries, particularly, some developing and many least developed economies, coffee, tea, and spices are major sources of income, foreign exchange, and employment (Bacon, 2005; Kitti et al., 2009). Even though most people strongly associate both production and export of coffee with the geographic region of Latin America, the largest exporters are the countries of Europe (a fivefold increase in the value of exports to $48.5 billion in 2019 compared to 2000), East Asia and the Pacific (fivefold increase to $15.8 billion), and Africa (fourfold increase to $14.5 billion). The value of exports from Latin America also increased, but to a lesser extent compared to other regions of the world, which resulted in a reduction in the contribution of Latin America to international exports (Fig. 3.17).

Fig. 3.17

Source Authors’ calculations based on United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2020)

Exports of coffee, tea, and spices by geographic region, portions in international exports in 2000–2019, %.

Such a decline in the share of the geographic region of Latin America and the Caribbean in the composition of global exports of coffee and tea was largely due to a reduction in supplies from Brazil, Peru, and Argentina. Compared to 2010, the value of coffee and tea exports from Brazil decreased by 9.34% in 2019, from Peru—by 13.73%, and from Argentina—by 6.93%. Following the line of argumentation of Pokorná and Smutka (2010), we may say that such a decline could be attributed to the lower added value received by developing countries from exporting unprocessed green coffee compared to the higher added value generated in developed economies that supply processed roasted coffee under world-famous trademarks. Evidently, European countries occupy consistently high positions in the ranking of leading exporters of coffee and tea. In particular, Germany has increased its share in the global exports by 2.23% points in 2000–2019, while the portions of the Netherlands and Italy have grown by 1.30 and 1.53% points, respectively (Table 3.15).

Table 3.15 Top ten exporters of coffee, tea, and spices in 2000–2019, $ million

The regions of East and South Asia are both net exporters of coffee, tea, and spices, and some Asian countries have substantially increased the value of their supplies to the global market, in particular, Vietnam (a growth in share in global exports from 2.59% in 2000 to 4.09% in 2019), India (from 3.14 to 3.54%), China (from 1.97 to 3.07%), and Malaysia (from 1.08 to 1.73%). Among the countries of Sub-Saharan Africa, major exporters of coffee and tea, along with Cote d’Ivoire, are Ghana, Kenya, Uganda, Nigeria, Ethiopia, and Madagascar.

Four of the eight geographic regions we consider in this review are net importers of coffee, tea, and spices, including Europe (trade deficit of $9.2 billion, or 8.67% of trade turnover in 2019), North America ($11.0 billion, or 44.44%), Middle East and North Africa ($6.1 billion, or 61.33%), and Central Asia ($0.6 billion, or 79.81%) (Fig. 3.18). Each of these regions increased purchases in 2000–2019. The value of imports by European countries raised 3.5 times to $57.8 billion, while in the regions of North America, Middle East and North Africa, and Central Asia, imports increased 2.9 times (to $17.9 billion), 4.2 times (to $8.1 billion), and 3.8 times (to $0.7 billion), respectively.

Fig. 3.18

Source Authors’ calculations based on United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2020)

Imports of coffee, tea, and spices by geographic region, portions in international imports in 2000–2019, %.

The composition of leading importers of coffee, tea, and spices has hardly changed since the early 2000s. The share of the USA in world imports declined from 16.04% in 2000 to 13.08% in 2019. Germany and France have also decreased their portion in imports from 10.16 to 8.62% and from 6.97 to 6.61%, respectively (Table 3.16).

Table 3.16 Top ten importers of coffee, tea, and spices in 2000–2019, $ million

In the geographic region of the Middle East and North Africa, the largest importers of coffee, tea, and spices are Saudi Arabia ($1.5 billion, or 1.45% of global imports in 2019) and the UAE ($1.2 billion, or 1.14%), in the region of East Asia and the Pacific—Japan ($2.9 billion, or 2.80%) and China ($1.8 billion, or 1.70%), in the region of South Asia—India ($984.0 million, or 0.93%) and Pakistan ($707.5 million, or 0.67%), in the region of Latin America and the Caribbean—Brazil ($452.7 million, or 0.43%) and Chile ($321.6 million, or 0.31%), in the region of Sub-Saharan Africa—South Africa ($431.5 million, or 0.41%) and Sudan ($190.8 million, or 0.18%).

3.2.9 Feedstuff for Animals

The international trade turnover of feedstuff for animals has quadrupled in two decades to $166.3 billion in 2019. The portion of this category of agricultural raw materials in the composition of international agricultural trade fluctuated slightly between 5 and 6% and currently stands at 5.31%. The total value of exports increased from $20.6 billion in 2000 to $59.7 billion in 2010 and had reached $81.5 billion by 2019. The share of the geographic region of Europe in the composition of global exports by region has been growing (Fig. 3.19). Supplies of feedstuff from Europe increased 4.38 times during 2000–2019 up to $33.1 billion. Relative to the shares of other suppliers in the global market of feedstuff for animals, the portion of Latin America, the world’s second-largest exporter, declined slightly, but the value of exports increased 3.5 times from $5.7 billion in 2000 to $19.8 billion in 2019. The main growth, however, occurred in the first decade of the XX century. Since the 2010s, the export of feedstuff from Latin America has been growing at a slow pace and has even declined in some countries of the region (Chile).

Fig. 3.19

Source Authors’ calculations based on United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2020)

Exports of feedstuff for animals by geographic region, portions in international exports in 2000–2019, %.

Similarly to that in Latin America, the share of North America in international exports of feedstuff is also declining. In terms of value, exports are growing in all countries of the region, but the growth rate is lower compared to that of the world exports. Overall, while global exports grew 3.96 times in 2000–2019, supplies from the geographic region of North America increased 3.18 times from $4.7 billion in 2000 to $10.7 billion in 2010 and then to $15.0 billion in 2019. During the entire period under review, the USA remains the largest feedstuff exporter among both the countries of North America (79.87% of the region’s exports in 2019) and worldwide (14.74% of international exports in 2019).

The second-largest exporter of feedstuff for animals in North America is Canada. Its share of world exports has increased slightly in recent years, but overall, the composition of major exporters has not changed significantly. Very similar to previous decades, the ranking of top ten suppliers in 2019 included Argentina (a decline of the share of exports by 0.20% points to 11.59% in 2019), Brazil (a decline by 0.54% points to 7.77%), the Netherlands (a decline by 1.15% points to 7.44%), as well as Germany, France, Belgium, and Peru. In China, the share in global exports of feedstuff increased by 2.42% points to 3.89% in 2019 (Table 3.17).

Table 3.17 Top ten exporters of feedstuff for animals in 2000–2019, $ million

In terms of imports, Europe is the largest importer of feedstuff for animals in the world, but its share in global purchases is declining, while those of East Asia and the Pacific and other regions of the world are growing (Fig. 3.20). The value of imports by European countries increased 3.14 times to $37.7 billion in 2019, while the growth rate amounted to 4.45 times in Est Asia and the Pacific (up to $24.5 billion), 4.38 times in North America (up to $7.0 billion), 3.92 times in the Middle East and North Africa (up to $5.7 billion), and 4.77 times in Latin America and the Caribbean (up to $5.6 billion).

Fig. 3.20

Source Authors’ calculations based on United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2020)

Imports of feedstuff for animals by geographic region, portions in international imports in 2000–2019, %.

The growth in the share of East Asian countries in world imports of feedstuff for animals is largely due to increased imports by China, Vietnam, Indonesia, and South Korea. All of these countries are among the world’s largest net importers of feedstuffs, as is the entire region of East Asia and the Pacific. The portion of China in the composition of world imports of feedstuff for animals increased from 4.01% in 2000 to 5.68% in 2019, Vietnam—from 0.70 to 4.59%, Indonesia—from 2.11 to 3.22%, South Korea—from 2.55 to 3.03% (Table 3.18).

Table 3.18 Top ten importers of feedstuff for animals in 2000–2019, $ million

Along with the geographic region of East Asia and the Pacific, the net importers of feedstuff for animals are the regions of the Middle East and North Africa (in 2019, trade deficit amounted to $4.7 billion, or 70.69% of the turnover), Europe ($4.6 billion, or 6.44%), Central Asia ($118.4 million, or 36.04%), and Africa ($38.5 million, or 1.56%). Among the countries of the Middle East and North Africa, the largest importers are Saudi Arabia ($871.5 million, or 1.03% of global imports of feedstuffs in 2019) and Iran ($759.4 million, or 0.89%), in Europe—Germany ($4.4 billion, or 5.22%) and the Netherlands ($3.7 billion, or 4.35%), in Central Asia—Uzbekistan ($102.5 million, or 0.12%) and Kazakhstan ($93.2 million, or 0.11%), in Africa—South Africa ($378.5 million, or 0.45%) and Kenya ($98.5 million, or 0.12%).

3.2.9.1 Miscellaneous Edible Products and Preparations

The “Miscellaneous edible products and preparations” category includes margarine, shortening, and other not specified edible products and preparations. The portion of this category in total international agricultural trade turnover was 6.36% in 2019, an increase by 1.18% points compared to 2010 and by 1.84% points compared to 2000. The value of trade turnover raised fivefold from $39.8 billion in 2000 to $118.7 billion in 2010 and then to $199.3 billion in 2019. About half of the global exports of miscellaneous edible products is provided by European countries. However, due to the rapid growth of supplies from the countries of East Asia and the Pacific, the shares in global export of Europe, North America, Latin America, and other exporters have declined significantly (Fig. 3.21). Over the two decades, exports of miscellaneous edible products from East Asia skyrocketed more than ninefold from $3.0 billion (15.4% of global exports) up to $28.1 billion (28.1% of global exports).

Fig. 3.21

Source Authors’ calculations based on United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2020)

Exports of miscellaneous edible products and preparations by geographic region, portions in international exports in 2000–2019, %.

Many countries of East Asia and the Pacific have scaled up their supplies to the world market. Singapore became the largest exporter among the countries of the region and the third-largest in the world. Its share in the international export of miscellaneous edible products increased from 1.61% in 2000 to 7.45% in 2019. China was ranked fifth-biggest exporter in 2019, increasing its share in global exports from 3.19 to 4.74%. Thailand, Malaysia, Australia, Indonesia, and New Zealand have also increased the value of their exports. Amid such growth in exports from developing countries of Asia, the portions of developed countries of Europe and North America (leading exporters in the 2000s) in the composition of international supplies of miscellaneous edible products have been declining (the USA—from 15.48% in 2000 down to 10.03% in 2019, Germany—from 8.23% down to 7.25%, France—from 5.97% down to 4.26%) (Table 3.19).

Table 3.19 Top ten exporters of miscellaneous edible products and preparations in 2000–2019, $ million

A similar trend is observed in the distribution of the regions’ portions in the composition of international imports of miscellaneous edible products and preparations. The share of Europe in imports is declining, while those of developing regions are growing. Europe is a net exporter of miscellaneous edible products, but it still leads the world in terms of the value of imports. The geographic regions of the Middle East and North Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Central and South Asia are all net importers. In the Middle East and North Africa, the trade deficit increased fourfold and reached $5.4 billion in 2019, or 58.20% of trade turnover.

In Latin America, Sub-Saharan Africa, Central Asia, and South Asia, trade deficit amounted to $2.8 billion (32.31% of trade turnover), $3.0 billion (59.55%), $640.3 million (81.28%), and $188.5 million (10.48%), respectively (Fig. 3.22).

Fig. 3.22

Source Authors’ calculations based on United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2020)

Imports of miscellaneous edible products and preparations by geographic region, portions in international imports in 2000–2019, %.

As in the case of leading exporters of miscellaneous edible products and preparations, one could observe a significant increase in the role of developing countries as leading importers. China’s imports of miscellaneous edible products raised almost thirty times, while the country’s portion in the composition of global imports increased from 1.51% in 2000 to 9.24% in 2019. In the majority of developed countries, contributions to the value of international consumption of edible products decreased, particularly, by 1.85% points in the UK, by 1.82% points in Germany, and by 1.12% points in France (Table 3.20).

Table 3.20 Top ten importers of miscellaneous edible products and preparations in 2000–2019, $ million

Among the countries of the Middle East and North Africa, major importers of miscellaneous edible products and preparations are Saudi Arabia ($2.1 billion, or 2.11% of global imports in 2019) and the UAE ($1.1 million, or 1.15%), in Latin America and the Caribbean—Chile ($674.7 million, or 0.68%) and Brazil ($577.8 million, or 0.58%), in Sub-Saharan Africa—Nigeria ($809.2 million, or 0.82%) and South Africa ($306.9 million, or 0.31%), in Central Asia—Kazakhstan ($414.0 million, or 0.42%) and Uzbekistan ($162.7 million, or 0.16%), in South Asia—India ($232.7 million, or 0.23%) and Pakistan ($215.3 million, or 0.22%).

3.2.9.2 Beverages and Tobacco

The “Beverages and tobacco” category is the third-largest in international agricultural trade. It includes non-alcoholic and alcoholic beverages and manufactured and unmanufactured tobacco and tobacco refuse (United Nations Conference on Trade & Development, 2020). Over the past two decades, the value of international trade in beverages and tobacco has increased almost threefold up to $327.6 billion, while the share of the category in the composition of global agricultural trade turnover declined from 12.89% in 2000 to 10.46% in 2019. The value of exports raised from $56.4 billion in 2000 to $120.6 billion in 2010 and then to $162.2 billion in 2019. The countries of Europe are distinct leaders in the supply of beverages and tobacco in the global market, while the shares of North America, Latin America and the Caribbean, and Sub-Saharan Africa have been declining since the early 2010s (Fig. 3.23).

Fig. 3.23

Source Authors’ calculations based on United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2020)

Exports of beverages and tobacco by geographic region, portions in international exports in 2000–2019, %.

The top ten ranking of leading exporters of beverages and tobacco is dominated by European countries, including France (11.72% of global exports in 2019), Italy (7.52%), and the UK (6.28%). However, in recent years, several European exporters have been losing their positions in the global market, while some Asian and Latin American economies have been scaling up their supplies. Thus, among the countries of East Asia and the Pacific, China, Singapore, and Thailand have substantially increased exports of beverages and tobacco (up to 2.47, 2.40, and 1.22% of the global exports in 2019, respectively).

In the geographic region of Latin America and the Caribbean, Brazil, Chile, Dominican Republic, and Argentina contributed the most to the composition of the region’s exports. Among the countries of Sub-Saharan Africa, the largest supplier of beverages and tobacco is South Africa (0.84% of global exports) (Table 3.21).

Table 3.21 Top ten exporters of beverages and tobacco in 2000–2019, $ million

European countries also lead the world in terms of the value of consumption of beverages and tobacco, but their portion in the composition of global imports has been declining rapidly since the 2010s. While the value of global imports has increased 2.90 times over the past two decades, the growth of imports in Europe was only 2.42 times from $29.4 billion in 2000 to $71.1 billion in 2019. The value of imports increased much faster in other regions of the world, including East Asia and the Pacific (3.55 times to $30.8 billion in 2019), North America (3.18 times to $34.1 billion), Middle East and North Africa (4.17 times to $10.8 billion), Latin America and the Caribbean (3.33 times to $5.5 billion), Sub-Saharan Africa (4.19 times to $4.6 billion), South Asia (5.07 times to $1.1 billion), and Central Asia (6.69 times to $715.9 million) (Fig. 3.24).

Fig. 3.24

Source Authors’ calculations based on United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2020)

Imports of beverages and tobacco by geographic region, portions in international imports in 2000–2019, %.

Well ahead of the other countries, the USA is the world’s largest importer of beverages and tobacco throughout the period under review. Its portion in the composition of global imports has increased by 1.17% points from 16.22% in 2000 to 17.39% in 2019. Apart from the USA, Canada, China, and Japan, the top ten importers rating includes only European countries (Table 3.22). Almost all of them have reduced the value of their purchases in relative terms. Thus, the share of Germany in world imports of beverages and tobacco decreased from 7.55% in 2000 to 5.79% in 2019, the share of the UK—from 10.24% to 5.05%, and the share of France—from 5.08 to 3.68%. Most of non-European developing countries, on the contrary, have increased their portions in international purchases, including China (from 0.64% in 2000 to 4.92% in 2019), Singapore (from 1.64 to 2.16%), Iraq (from 0.36 to 1.23%), UAE (from 0.56 to 1.23%), South Africa (from 0.26 to 0.53%), and India (from 0.07 to 0.34%).

Table 3.22 Top ten importers of beverages and tobacco in 2000–2019, $ million

3.2.9.3 Oilseeds and Oleaginous Fruits

The “Oilseeds and oleaginous fruits” category is one of the few among thirteen groups of agricultural products considered in this review where the region of Europe dominates neither in exports nor in imports. During twenty years, the value of trade turnover increased more than fivefold up to $167.7 billion in 2019. Such growth was primarily attributed to the increase in the value of exports from Latin America and respective tremendous growth in the consumption of oilseeds in the countries of East Asia. According to Mittaine and Mielke (2012), oilseeds are particularly important in emerging markets due to the large population, rise in per capita consumption of vegetable oils and livestock products, and increase in disposable income in the past decades. Internationally, exports of oilseeds and oleaginous fruits increased from $14.6 billion in 2000 to $56.8 billion in 2010 and then to $77.6 billion in 2019. Latin America boosted its supplies almost ninefold up to $33.1 billion in 2019, becoming the world’s largest net exporter of oilseeds and oleaginous fruits (Fig. 3.25). The regions of North America and Sub-Saharan Africa are the second and third largest net importers, respectively. In North America, the trade surplus reached $22.8 billion, or 78.24% of trade turnover, in 2019, while that in Sub-Saharan Africa amounted to $1.7 billion, or 72.63% of trade turnover.

Fig. 3.25

Source Authors’ calculations based on United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2020)

Exports of oilseeds and oleaginous fruits by geographic region, portions in international exports in 2000–2019, %.

In general, over the past two decades, the top ten ranking of oilseeds exporters has not changed significantly in terms of the composition of countries. Still, the positions of individual economies in this rating have changed. Thus, the USA, the unchallenged leader for many years, was displaced from the first position in the rating by Brazil. The portion of the USA in the composition of the global exports fell from 39.99% in 2000 to 34.86% in 2010 and then to 26.85% in 2019, while Brazil’s share, in contrast, rose from 15.02% to 19.52% and then to 33.95%, respectively (Table 3.23). In addition to Brazil, major suppliers of oilseeds and oleaginous fruits in the region of Latin America and the Caribbean are Argentina (5.07% of world exports in 2019, a decrease by 1.85% points compared to 2000) and Paraguay (2.33%, a decrease by 0.73% points), in Europe—Ukraine (2.50%, an increase by 1.24% points) and France (1.69%, a decrease by 0.64% points), in East Asia and the Pacific—Australia (1.81%, a decrease by 1.05% points) and China (1.31%, a decrease by 1.55% points). India, the largest exporter in the region of South Asia, has increasingly become dependent on the production of oilseeds. Bhati and Kumar (2020) and Renjini and Jha (2019) explain such dependence by the lower rate of growth in domestic production of oilseeds as compared to demand growth because progressing trade liberalization along with India’s membership in the WTO resulted in a failure of many Indian producers in international competition.

Table 3.23 Top ten exporters of oilseeds and oleaginous fruits in 2000–2019, $ million

The world’s major consumer of oilseeds and oleaginous fruits is the geographic region of East Asia and the Pacific, whose share in the composition of world imports has grown rapidly since the early 2000s (from $6.4 billion in 2000 to $26.5 billion in 2010 and then to $53.3 billion in 2019) (Fig. 3.26). East Asia is a distinct net importer of oilseeds. Over two decades, the trade deficit has grown 9.35 times up to $50.2 billion in 2019, or 89.09% of trade turnover. This significant increase in the value of trade deficit could be attributed to the boom in China’s imports. In 2019, China’s share of aggregated imports of East Asia and the Pacific amounted to 84.22%, while the value of purchases of oilseeds and oleaginous fruits increased more than fifteen times to $44.9 billion compared to 2000. Oilseeds are primarily used as food, but alternative uses have been emerging lately, for instance, in chemistry, energy production, or as a feed in livestock production (Mittaine & Mielke, 2012).

Fig. 3.26

Source Authors’ calculations based on United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2020)

Imports of oilseeds and oleaginous fruits by geographic region, portions in international imports in 2000–2019, %.

Compared to China, which accounts for almost half of the world’s imports of oilseeds and oleaginous fruits, the market shares of other countries are relatively small. Thus, Germany and the Netherlands, the second and third-largest importers, accounted for only 5.16 and 3.56% of global imports in 2019 (Table 3.24). Among other European countries, large importers of oilseeds and oleaginous fruits are Turkey (2.16% in world imports in 2019, an increase by 0.72% points compared to 2000), Spain (1.89%, a decline by 2.72% points), and Belgium (1.68%, a decline by 1.66%). Apart from China, big importers in the geographic region of East Asia and the Pacific are Japan (3.33%, a decline by 8.98% points), Indonesia (1.56%, a decline by 0.51% points), and Thailand (1.45%, a decline by 0.42% points).

Table 3.24 Top ten importers of oilseeds and oleaginous fruits in 2000–2019, $ million

In other regions of the world, the largest importers of oilseeds and oleaginous fruits are Egypt (2.12% of global imports, an increase by 1.16% points compared to 2000), Argentina (1.79%, an increase by 1.42% points), Mexico (1.68%, a decline by 5.39% points), Pakistan (1.27%, an increase by 0.49% points), and the USA (1.20%, a decline by 0.94% points).

3.2.9.4 Animal and Vegetable Oils, Fats, and Waxes

The “Animal and vegetable oils, fats, and waxes” category includes animal oils and fats, crude, refined, and fractioned fixed vegetable oils and fats, and processed animal and vegetable oils and fats. With the growth in world population and disposable income across developing countries (Wang, 2016), the share of this category in international agricultural trade went up from 4.68% in 2000 to 5.96% in 2019, while the value of trade turnover increased 4.53 times from $41.2 billion to $186.6 billion, respectively. More than three-quarters of total exports are provided by just two geographic regions, namely, East Asia and the Pacific and Europe (Fig. 3.27).

Fig. 3.27

Source Authors’ calculations based on United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2020)

Exports of animal and vegetable oils, fats, and waxes by geographic region, portions in international exports in 2000–2019, %.

The countries of East Asia and the Pacific increased the value of their exports almost sixfold to $39.9 billion in 2019, while the supplies from Europe grew 4.52 times to $32.4 billion. For the two decades, Indonesia and Malaysia have been the largest exporters of animal and vegetable oils and fats among the countries of East Asia and the Pacific and the two largest in the world. The share of the former in world exports soared from 9.00% in 2000 to 20.16% in 2010 and then to 24.44% in 2019, while that of the latter first increased from 17.30 to 20.71% in 2000–2010, then fell to 13.19% by 2019. Among European countries, the largest exporters of animal and vegetable oils and fats are Netherlands (5.46% in global exports in 2019, a decline by 1.09% points compared to 2000), Spain (5.00%, a decline by 0.45% points), and Germany (3.28%, a decline by 1.86% points). Many of “traditional” European suppliers decreased their portions in the composition of global exports, while new export powers have emerged, including Ukraine (4.52% in global exports in 2019, an increase by 3.30% points compared to 2000) and Russia (3.13%, an increase by 2.73% points) (Table 3.25).

Table 3.25 Top ten exporters of animal and vegetable oils, fats, and waxes in 2000–2019, $ million

Among the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean, Argentina has reduced its contribution to the global supply of animal and vegetable oils and fats by 4.05% points in 2000–2019, while Guatemala, Honduras, and Colombia have gained 0.40, 0.34, and 0.33% points, respectively. In other geographic regions of the world, large exporters of animal and vegetable oils and fats are Canada and the USA in North America, Tunisia and the UAE in the Middle East and North Africa, South Africa and Cote d’Ivoire in Sub-Saharan Africa, India in South Asia, and Kazakhstan in Central Asia (Erokhin et al., 2020). Other regions of the world are net importers of animal and vegetable oils and fats. In South Asia, the trade deficit increased from $2.6 billion in 2000 to $13.4 billion in 2019, or 81.2% of trade turnover. In Sub-Saharan Africa, Middle East and North Africa, North America, and Central Asia, trade deficit amounted to $3.5 billion (55.80% of trade turnover), $4.2 billion (45.94%), $2.2 billion (14.30%), and $327.5 million (47.14%), respectively. Among net importers, Europe has the smallest trade deficit, but in terms of the value of imports, it is the world’s largest consumer of animal and vegetable oils and fats (Fig. 3.28). In 2019, Europe’s imports amounted to $33.3 billion, which was almost four times more compared to 2000. In terms of individual countries, the world’s largest importers are the countries of South and East Asia. The share of India in global imports grew from 8.77% in 2000 to 11.03% in 2019, while that of China increased from 4.54 to 9.80%, respectively (Table 3.26).

Fig. 3.28

Source Authors’ calculations based on United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2020)

Imports of animal and vegetable oils, fats, and waxes by geographic region, portions in international imports in 2000–2019, %.

Table 3.26 Top ten importers of animal and vegetable oils, fats, and waxes in 2000–2019, $ million

Also, in East Asia and the Pacific and South Asia, large importers of animal and vegetable oils and fats are Bangladesh (2.70% in global imports in 2019, an increase by 1.12% points compared to 2000) and Pakistan (2.07%, a decrease by 0.14% points).

Six of the top ten importers of animal and vegetable oils and fats are European countries. Of these six, only Spain and the Netherlands have increased their purchases on the world market in relative terms (by 1.59 and 0.64% points, respectively, as a share of world imports in 2019). The portions of Italy, Germany, Belgium, and the UK in global imports have declined. In other geographic regions of the world, major importers of animal and vegetable oils and fats are the USA and Canada in North America, Brazil and Colombia in Latin America, Egypt and Saudi Arabia in the Middle East and North Africa, and Ethiopia and South Africa in Sub-Saharan Africa.

3.3 Conclusion

Summing up the review of international agricultural trade, we acknowledge that over the past two decades, there have occurred structural transformations in the composition of consumers and suppliers of various categories of agricultural products in the global market (Table 3.27).

Table 3.27 Major tendencies in international agricultural trade in 2000–2019 by products, geographic regions, and countries

On the whole, although developed countries still occupy leading positions in the world in both exports and imports of most kinds of agricultural products, their shares in global agricultural trade are decreasing. In 2000–2019, both Europe and North America reduced their portions in trade in meat and meat preparations, milk and dairy products, vegetables, fruits, edible products and preparations, beverages, oilseeds, and animal and vegetable oils and fats. In contrast to the declining contribution of developed countries to the value of international agricultural trade, the shares of developing countries in trade turnover are growing. This tendency is especially noticeable in the cases of geographic regions of East Asia and the Pacific and Latin America and the Caribbean. The portions of East Asian countries in the compositions of world exports and imports are going up in most categories of agricultural products, including live animals, meat and dairy products, fruits and vegetables, sugar and coffee, feedstuff for animals, and animal and vegetable oils, fats, and waxes. Latin American countries have particularly scaled up supplies of oilseeds, cereals, meat, dairy products, and fish, as well as have increased purchases of feedstuff for animals, beverages, meat and meat preparations, and fish, crustaceans, and mollusks. In contrast to East Asia and Latin America, other developing regions of the world play a less prominent role in the composition of global agricultural turnover, but for some products, they are increasingly large exporters (live animals, vegetables, fruits, and coffee in Sub-Saharan Africa; dairy products, vegetables, and sugar in the Middle East and North Africa; meat products, fish, cereals, and sugar in South Asia) and importers (cereals, oilseeds, live animals, and meat and dairy products in the Middle East and North Africa; cereals, fish, and sugar in Sub-Saharan Africa).