Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Between Light and Shadow: The Contrasting Landscape and Contemporary Development of South Korea’s School System

  • Living reference work entry
  • First Online:
International Handbook on Education Development in Asia-Pacific

Abstract

This chapter aims to illuminate the light and shadow of Korea’s school system. To this end, the chapter begins with a brief review of the historical development of the school system in Korea since 1945. Then, the chapter delves into the bright sides of the school system and unveils the flip sides of the school system, corresponding to the system’s strengths. Such contrasting features include academic excellence amid inequality, high educational attainment but low academic confidence and well-being, and coexistence of well-established school system with ever-expanding shadow education market. The chapter further explores the contemporary direction of educational development in Korea that can be boiled down to building a student-centered system for learning for the twenty-first century. To detail this contemporary change, the chapter provides snapshots of key education reforms that are being implemented. The contemporary reforms discussed in this chapter include free academic year system, high school credit system, innovation schools, and the introduction of the International Baccalaureate to local schools. The chapter also discusses ongoing challenges around the contemporary reforms from a critical perspective for future studies to explore whether and how those reforms work for moving toward the student-centered school system. Taken together, the chapter provides a balanced and fuller picture of Korea’s school system for international audiences.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. 1.

    We wish to note that it is important to distinguish what PISA can tell us about the performance of our education system from what PISA can’t. Because PISA focuses on relatively narrow metrics, it can possibly hide more than it reveals beyond test scores, such as social outcomes of education (e.g., Levin, 2012; Popkewitz, 2011; Zhao & Meyer, 2013). That said, PISA can tell us something, but not everything about academic excellence in that standardized test scores of a narrow set of subjects in PISA cannot capture the multifaceted concept of school effectiveness and excellence comprehensively (Lee, M., 2018).

  2. 2.

    Of many reasons for the continuous failures of education reforms, we wish to note the perpetual problem of the university entrance exam in Korea. The exam system has always been hypercompetitive because it determines the life chances of students significantly. As such, the university entrance exam has dictated teaching and learning throughout the K-12 system. Recognizing this sort of “wag the dog” situation, there have been more than 20 changes to “fix” the university entrance exam system since 1990. However, most of the attempts were not successful or brought some limited improvements to the exam system at best. This is mainly due to the daunting nature of cultivating broad societal consensus about how to assess student learning outcomes in a very competitive society like Korea where education plays a key role in social selection.

  3. 3.

    As noted earlier, it should be noted that PISA has its limitations in terms of validity. Also, we are aware of underlying ideologies or “new global modes” of education governance promoted through OECD PISA (Sellar & Lingard, 2014). At the same time, however, we know that assessment and measurement are integral parts of education systems that we cannot simply dismiss. By virtue of the availability of international comparable data on learning outcomes such as PISA, researchers can conduct cross-national comparisons in education with nationally representative samples, wide-ranging scope of policy variables and comparable measurements (Valiente & Lee, 2020). As far as PISA is concerned, the point we wish to make is that it is important to take a balanced stance on the long-running debate about PISA’s utility and/or validity in developing education reforms.

  4. 4.

    We admit that this is our speculation drawn from the concept of “learned helpless” (Seligman, 1975). In this regard, much is needed to investigate the phenomenon of sleeping classroom. Surprisingly, empirical research on the phenomenon is thin on the ground. Even little is known how it has become so widespread.

  5. 5.

    This system is similar to “The Transition Year” in Ireland and “Efterskole” in Denmark in that it aims to help students better understand themselves (e.g., their interest and talent) by allowing schools to implement the curriculum in a flexible way (e.g., career exploration programs, field trips, teaching non-traditional subjects).

  6. 6.

    In addition, to support HSCS, each school is asked to organize a curriculum support team, consisting of a homeroom teacher, a head teacher of school affairs, and a career counsellor teacher. The purpose of this team is to offer career and academic counselling for individual students. In the cases that there are only a few students who wish to take a certain subject at school or the desired subject is not offered due to the lack of teaching staff, students will be allowed to take up the subject through a curriculum jointly opened and operated by neighboring schools.

  7. 7.

    The government has justified the introduction of HSCS by referencing other education systems (e.g., USA and Finland) where a similar system operates (Kim et al., 2021).

  8. 8.

    This section is reconstructed from Lee (2019) and Lee et al. (2022a)

References

  • Baek, B., & Park, M. (2015). The effect of Hyuksin schools on decreasing the educational gap: Focused on Gyoung-gi province Hyuksin schools. Korean Journal of Sociology of Education, 25(1), 105–128. (in Korean).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bak, B., & Park, S. (2012). Development and validation of an academic stress scale. The Korean Journal of Educational Psychology, 26(2), 563–585. (in Korean).

    Google Scholar 

  • Buchmann, C. (2002). Getting ahead in Kenya: Social capital, shadow education and achievement. In B. Fuller & E. Hannum (Eds.), Schooling and social capital in diverse cultures (research in the sociology of education) (Vol. 13, pp. 133–159). Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

    Google Scholar 

  • Byun, S. (2010). Does policy matter in shadow education spending? Revisiting the effects of the high school equalization policy in South Korea. Asia Pacific Education Review, 11(1), 83–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Byun, S. (2014). Shadow education and academic success in Republic of Korea. In H. Park & K. Kim (Eds.), Korean education in changing economic and demographic contexts (pp. 39–58). Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Byun, S. (2021). The state, educational policy, and educational inequality in the Republic of Korea. An unpublished manuscript.

    Google Scholar 

  • Byun, S., & Joo, Y. (2012). Determinants and effects of school choice: Evidence from the Seoul education longitudinal study. The Journal of Korean Education, 39(1), 5–33. (in Korean).

    Google Scholar 

  • Byun, S., & Kim, K. (2010). Educational inequality in South Korea: The widening socioeconomic gap in student achievement. Research in the Sociology of Education, 17, 155–182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Byun, S., & Lee, S. (2021). Parental socioeconomic status and children’s educational outcomes: Has educational inequality increased in Korea? Pak’yŏngstory. (in Korean).

    Google Scholar 

  • Byun, S., Hwang, Y., & Kim, K. (2012a). Effects of foreign language high school on admissions into prestigious colleges. Korean Journal of Sociology of Education, 22(3), 133–165. (in Korean).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Byun, S., Kim, K., & Park, H. (2012b). School choice and educational inequality in South Korea. Journal of School Choice, 6(2), 158–183. https://doi.org/10.1080/15582159.2012.673854

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Byun, S., Schofer, E., & Kim, K. (2012c). Revisiting the role of cultural capital in East Asian educational systems: The case of South Korea. Sociology of Education, 85(3), 219–239.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Byun, S., Chung, H., & Baker, D. (2018). Global patterns of the use of shadow education: Student, family, and national influences. Research in the Sociology of Education, 20, 71–105. https://doi.org/10.1108/S1479-353920180000020004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chang, S. (2016). Widening gap: The increasing influence of parental socioeconomic status on children’s academic achievement in Korea. Korean Journal of Sociology, 50(5), 107–140. (in Korean).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheo, R., & Quah, E. (2005). Mothers, maids and tutors: An empirical evaluation of their effect on children’s academic grades in Singapore. Education Economics, 13(3), 269–285.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dang, H. (2007). The determinants and impact of private tutoring classes in Vietnam. Economics of Education Review, 26, 684–699.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Educational Broadcasting System (2020, January 21). Sleeping in class. Retrieved December 31, 2021 from https://docuprime.ebs.co.kr/docuprime/vodReplayView?siteCd=DP&prodId=7503&courseId=BP0PAPB0000000005&stepId=02BP0PAPB0000000005&lectId=20219743 (in Korean).

  • Jang, J. (2021, June 27). “예산만 타가는 무늬만 혁신학교 많다”[“there are many innovation schools in name only, taking government budget”.. EduPress [EduPress]. (in Korean) http://www.edupress.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=7602

  • Jensen, B. (2012). Catching up: Learning from the best school system in East Asia. The Grattan Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ji, S. (2019, April 17). “IB 한국어화 일문일답” [IB Korean Dual Language Diploma Project Q&A]. EduinNews [EduinNews]. (in Korean) https://www.eduinnews.co.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=13512

  • Jung, Y., & Lee, Y. (2021). Paradox of public education normalization policy: Focusing on the perceptions of teachers and parents. The Journal of Educational Administration, 39(3), 121–160. (in Korean).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, D. (2019). Analysis on organizing student selective curriculum of highschool credit system research school and the tendency of subjects selection by students. The Journal of Curriculum Studies, 37(2), 131–157. (in Korean).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, S. (2021). Analysis of issues and tasks related to the high school credit system. Education Review, 48, 32–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, S., & Lee, J. (2003). The secondary school equalization policy in South Korea. Retrieved March 16, 2022 from https://www.kdevelopedia.org/Resources/view/04201201210006005.do#.X1MRNnlKiUk

  • Kim, S., Jang, S., & Chong, M. (2021). Policy referencing patterns in South Korea: The free year program and the high school credit policy. International Journal of Educational Development, 86, 102475.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, S., Kim, Y., Kang, S., Kim, H., & Shin, J. (2007). Korean education longitudinal study 2005(III): Descriptive report. Korea educational development institute research report. RR 2007-20-1. (in Korean).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ko, M. (2019, May 17). “혁신학교 진통..전환반대” [innovation schools facing opposition] Maeil Kyungjae [Maeil Business]. https://www.mk.co.kr/news/society/view/2019/05/325641/ (in Korean).

  • Korea Institute for Curriculum and Evaluation. (2021). Discussion of the survey results on the introduction of the high school credit system. Korea Institute for Curriculum and Evaluation Research Report. ORM 2021–58. (in Korean).

    Google Scholar 

  • Korean Educational Development Institute. (2021). Statistical yearbook of education. Retrieved December 31, 2021 from https://kess.kedi.re.kr/eng/publ/list?survSeq=&menuSeq=0&division=&itemCode=02 (in Korean).

  • Kuan, P. (2011). Effects of cram schooling on mathematics performance: Evidence from junior high students in Taiwan. Comparative Education Review, 55(3), 342–368.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, C. (1992). A Korean model of educational development. SNU Journal of Education Research, 2, 2–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, C., Kim, Y., & Byun, S. (2012). The rise of Korean education from the ashes of the Korean War. Prospects (UNESCO’s Quarterly Review of Comparative Education), 42(3), 303–318.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, C., Lee, H., & Jang, H. (2010a). The history of policy responses to shadow education in South Korea: Implications for the next cycle of policy responses. Asia Pacific Education Review, 11(1), 97–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, H. (2018). Korea’s examination. Dasanjisikhouse. (in Korean).

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, H., Kim, J., & Ma, S. (2010b). Analysis of the effects of the policy of integrating and abolishing small schools in rural areas. Korea Educational Development Institute Research Report. RR 2010-07. (in Korean).

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, J., Lee, K., Jeong, Y., Lee, M., & Lim, Y. (2019a). The analysis of curriculum organization and implementation in ‘innovation school’. Korea Institute for Curriculum and Evaluation Research Report. RRC 2019-6. (in Korean).

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, M. (2018). A critical perspective of think tank reports’ influence on measuring and comparing the outcomes of schooling systems. A Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Congress for School Effectiveness and Improvement. NIE, Singapore.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, M. (2019). The International Baccalaureate (IB), hope or hype? Korean Educational Research Association Newsletter, 55(3), 10–18. 이무성 (2019). The International Baccalaureate (IB), hope or hype? 한국교육학회 뉴스레터 55(3): 10–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, M., & Friedrich, T. (2007). The ‘smaller’ the school, the better? The smaller learning communities (SLC) program in US high schools. Improving Schools, 10(3), 261–282.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, M., Kim, H., & Wright, E. (2022a). The influx of International Baccalaureate (IB) programmes to local education systems in Hong Kong, Singapore, and South Korea. Educational Review, 74(1), 131–150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, M., Kim, S., Choi, S.Y., & Kim, J. (2022b). Does the International Baccalaureate Diploma Program (IBDP) contribute to whole person development? The Rise of the IBDP in Asia and Its Implications for Education Reform. pp. 83–101). In Wong, K., & Lee, J. (Eds.). Centering Whole-Child Development in Global Education Reform: International Perspectives on Agendas for Educational Equity and Quality. UK: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, Y., Lee, K., Jeong, Y., Lee, M., & Lim, Y. (2019b). The analysis of curriculum organization and implementation in ‘innovation school’. Korea Institute for Curriculum and Evaluation Research Report. RRC 2019-6. (in Korean).

    Google Scholar 

  • Levin, H. (2012). More than just test scores. Prospects, 42(3), 269–284.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maxwell, C., Yemini, M., Engel, L., & Lee, M. (2020). Cosmopolitan nationalism in the cases of South Korea, Israel and the U.S. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 41(6), 845–858.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKinsey & Company. (2007). How the world’s best-performing school systems come out on top. Retrieved January 22, 2018 from https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/public-and-social-sector/our-insights/how-the-worlds-best-performing-school-systems-come-out-on-top

  • Ministry of Education. (2013). Test-free semesters at middle schools. Retrieved December 31, 2021 from http://english.moe.go.kr/boardCnts/view.do?boardID=265&boardSeq=49660&lev=0&searchType=S&statusYN=C&page=8&s=english&m=03&opType= (in Korean).

  • Ministry of Education. (2016). 2015 free semester system satisfaction results. (in Korean) Retrieved December 31, 2021 from https://moe.go.kr/boardCnts/view.do?boardID=294&boardSeq=62022&lev=0&searchType=null&statusYN=W&page=93&s=moe&m=0501&opType=N (in Korean).

  • Ministry of Education (2017). Plan for expanding and developing the free academic semester system in middle schools. Retrieved from December 31, 2021 https://www.moe.go.kr/boardCnts/viewRenew.do?boardID=316&lev=0&statusYN=W&s=moe&m=0302&opType=N&boardSeq=77406 (in Korean).

  • Ministry of Education. (2021). A comprehensive plan for the high school credit system to realize high school education for inclusion and growth. Retrieved from December 31, 2021 from http://moe.go.kr/boardCnts/view.do?boardID=294&lev=0&statusYN=W&s=moe&m=0204&opType=N&boardSeq=83590 (in Korean).

  • Ministry of Education. (n.d.). Major Tasks. Retrieved December 31, 2021 from http://english.moe.go.kr/sub/info.do?m=040101&s=english

  • Ministry of Education, & Korea Institute of Curriculum and Evaluation (2018). Manual of operation of high school credit research school. Research material ORM 2018–20. (in Korean).

    Google Scholar 

  • Morris, P. (1996). Asia’s four little tigers: A comparison of the role of education in their development. Comparative Education, 32(1), 95–110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • OECD. (2010). PISA 2009 results: What students know and can do–Student performance in reading, mathematics and science (Volume I). https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264091450-en

  • OECD. (2014). Lessons from PISA for Korea, Strong performers and successful reformers in education. OECD Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • OECD. (2016). Education policy outlook: Korea. Available at www.oecd.org/education/policyoutlook.htm

  • OECD. (2019). Education at a glance 2019. Paris: OECD Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • OECD Statistics. (2021). OECD. Stat. Retrieved October 31, 2021 from https://stats.oecd.org/

  • Oh, O. (2000). Educational fever in South Korea: Its origins and deepening. Seoul: kyoyuk’kwahaksa. (in Korean).

    Google Scholar 

  • Oh, S. (2014). Educational fever and state. In S. Oh et al. (Eds.), 70 years of Korean education (pp. 1–50). National Museum of Korean Contemporary History. (in Korean).

    Google Scholar 

  • Oh, J. (2021, February 18). ‘jamjaneun gyosil’ aksunhwanui Gori eotteohge? [The vicious circle of ‘sleep students in class’, how?]. Gyoyuk huimang [Education Hope]. https://news.eduhope.net/23018 (in Korean).

  • Oh, H., & Kim, K. (2020). Longitudinal analysis of students’ testing stress, academic stress and academic achievement. Korean Education Inquiry, 38(2), 107–131. (in Korean).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Park, H. (2013). Re-evaluating education in Japan and Korea: De-mystifying stereotypes. Routledge.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Park, H. (2014). The scale and characteristics of educational expansion after literation from the Japanese occupation. In S. Oh et al. (Eds.), 70 years of Korean education (pp. 103–172). National Museum of Korean Contemporary History. (in Korean).

    Google Scholar 

  • Park, H., Byun, S., & Kim, K. (2011). Parental involvement and students’ cognitive outcomes in Korea: Focusing on private tutoring. Sociology of Education, 84(1), 3–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Popkewitz, T. (2011). PISA numbers, standardizing conduct, and the alchemy of school subjects. In M. A. Pereyra, H.-G. Kotthoff, & R. Cowen (Eds.), PISA under examination: Changing knowledge, changing tests, and changing schools (pp. 31–46). Sense Publisher.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Schaub, M., Kim, H., Jang, D., & Baker, D. P. (2020). Policy reformer’s dream or nightmare? Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 50(7), 1066–1079.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. E. (1975). Helplessness: On depression, development, and death. W. H. Freeman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sellar, S., & Lingard, B. (2014). The OECD and the expansion of PISA: New global modes of governance in education. British Educational Research Journal, 40(6), 917–936.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seo, M., Gu, N., Kim, W., Sung, K., Jung, H., Kim, J., & Back, B. (2018). Analyzing impact of innovation schools on educational achievement of students. Korea Institute for Curriculum and Evaluation Research Report. CRE 2018-3. (in Korean).

    Google Scholar 

  • Seoul Metropolitan Office of Education (2021). Introduction to Innovation School. Retrieved December 31, 2021 from https://innoschoolcenter.sen.go.kr/homepage/html/htmlConvert.go;jsessionid=mdxb15YIy1lCws5c4gZXeIhpPDaYyWTqXxxzV0H6kAtacgK6pI4QOtzpWB733aph.study-was8_servlet_ulearn7?menuId=1000003917

  • Seth, M. J. (2002). Education fever: Society, politics, and the pursuit of schooling in South Korea. University of Hawaii Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shim, J. (2018). An analysis of change in school effectiveness of middle school by innovation school expansion in Gyeonggi Province. The Korea Educational Review, 24(3), 167–189. (in Korean).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Song, O. (2019, April). The international baccalaureate, can it change the educational paradigm? Hankook Daily News. Retrieved October 2, 2020 from https://www.hankookilbo.com/News/Read/201904231803051280 (in Korean).

  • Statistics Korea. (2021). Private education expenditures survey of elementary, middle and high school students in 2021. Retrieved march 27, 2022 from https://kostat.go.kr/portal/korea/kor_nw/1/7/1/index.board?bmode=download&bSeq=&aSeq=417176&ord=11(in Korean).

  • The Korea Times (2009). Obama lauds korea’s education of children. Available from http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2009/03/113_41066.html

  • The Korea Times (2011). Obama praises S. Korea for education system. Available from https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2011/03/113_83117.html

  • Valiente, O., & Lee, M. (2020). Exploring the OECD survey of adult skills (PIAAC): Implications for comparative education research and policy. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 50(2), 155–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • World Bank. (2020). The World Bank in Republic of Korea. Retrieved October 31, 2021 from https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/korea/overview

  • Zhao, Y. (2015). Lessons that matter: What should we learning from Asia’s school systems? Mitchell Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, Y., & Meyer, H.-D. (2013). High on PISA, low on entrepreneurship? In H.-D. Meyer & A. Benavot (Eds.), PISA, power, and policy (pp. 267–278). Symposium Books.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Education, University of Canberra, Canberra, CBR, Australia

    Moosung Lee

  2. Penn State University, University Park, PA, USA

    Soo-yong Byun

  3. Department of Education, Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea

    Moosung Lee

  4. Office of Data Strategy, Korean Educational Development Institute (KEDI), Jincheon, Chungcheongbuk-do, South Korea

    Youngmin Mo

Authors
  1. Moosung Lee
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Soo-yong Byun
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Youngmin Mo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Moosung Lee .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Singapore Institute of Adult Learning, Singapore University of Social Sciences, Singapore, Singapore

    Wing On Lee

  2. School of Social Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK

    Phillip Brown

  3. Thomas More Brennan Chair in Education, Lynch School of Education and Human Development, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, USA

    A. Lin Goodwin

  4. Institute of Education, University College London, London, UK

    Andy Green

Section Editor information

  1. University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

    A. Lin Goodwin

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2022 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Lee, M., Byun, Sy., Mo, Y. (2022). Between Light and Shadow: The Contrasting Landscape and Contemporary Development of South Korea’s School System. In: Lee, W.O., Brown, P., Goodwin, A.L., Green, A. (eds) International Handbook on Education Development in Asia-Pacific. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2327-1_108-1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2327-1_108-1

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore

  • Print ISBN: 978-981-16-2327-1

  • Online ISBN: 978-981-16-2327-1

  • eBook Packages: Springer Reference EducationReference Module Humanities and Social SciencesReference Module Education

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation