Abstract
The international legal instruments concluded to date in the field of culture, especially within the framework of UNESCO, aim at bringing two fundamental messages. First, culture contributes to the maintenance of international peace and security. Second, the protection and promotion of culture is a general interest of humankind as a whole. The paper reviews the main objectives pursued by the UNESCO “cultural conventions”, relating, respectively, to the protection of cultural property during armed conflicts, illicit export of cultural property, world cultural and natural heritage, underwater cultural heritage, intangible cultural heritage, and diversity of cultural expressions.
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Notes
- 1.
However, the Convention on the Prevention of the Crime of Genocide (New York, 1948) does not include cultural genocide in the definition of “genocide” (Art. II).
- 2.
193 States are today members of UNESCO. Israel and the United States withdrew from it as from 31 December 2018.
- 3.
UNESCO doc. 37 C/4 of 2014, p. 13.
- 4.
Reinforcement of UNESCO’s Action for the Protection of Culture and the Promotion of Cultural Pluralism in the Event of Armed Conflict, UNESCO doc. 38 C/49 of 2 November 2015, para. 10.
- 5.
See Subsidiary Body for the Examination of Nominations to the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, Report by the Rapporteur, UNESCO doc. ITH/09/4.COM/CONF.209/INF.6 of 26 August 2009, p. 6.
- 6.
The concept of culture becomes broader if a seventh treaty concluded within UNESCO, the International Convention against Doping in Sport (Paris, 2005), is considered. Sport is seen in this convention “as a means to promote education, health, development and peace” (preamble). 189 States are today parties to the convention.
- 7.
133 States are today (July 2020) parties to the 1954 Convention.
- 8.
110 States are today parties to the First Protocol.
- 9.
83 States are today parties to the Second Protocol, which was concluded “considering that the rules governing the protection of cultural property in the event of armed conflict should reflect developments in international law”.
- 10.
140 States, including both States of origin and States of destination of cultural properties, are today parties to the Convention.
- 11.
The acronym refers to the International Institute for the Unification of Private Law, within the framework of which this Convention was negotiated.
- 12.
48 States are today parties to this Convention.
- 13.
193 States are today parties to the 1972 Convention, which applies to both cultural and the natural heritage. The former is defined as including only immovable properties, such as monuments, groups of buildings, and sites.
- 14.
To date 1121 properties have been entered on the lists (869 cultural, 213 natural, and 39 mixed), 53 of which are on the List of World Heritage in Danger. As the records of its activities shows, the World Heritage Committee faces a significant challenge in establishing and maintaining a World Heritage List that is adequately representative, balanced, and credible.
- 15.
The World Heritage Committee is composed of 21 States parties to the 1972 Convention.
- 16.
So far, the World Heritage Committee removed two properties from the World Heritage List, namely the natural property “Arabian Oryx Sanctuary” (Oman), in 2007, due to the reduction of the size of the protected area by 90%, and the cultural property “Dresden Elbe Valley” (Germany), in 2009, due to the construction of a four-lane bridge within it.
- 17.
Prosecutor v. Jokić, judgements of 18 March 2004 (Trial Chamber) and 30 August 2005 (Appeals Chamber); Prosecutor v. Strugar, judgements of 31 January 2005 (Trial Chamber) and 17 July 2008 (Appeals Chamber).
- 18.
Prosecutor v. Al Mahdi, judgment of 27 September 2016 and order of 7 August 2017.
- 19.
The 2001 Convention is today in force for 64 States.
- 20.
The 2003 Convention is today in force for 178 States.
- 21.
The Committee has so far entered 549 elements in the lists (463 in the representative list, 64 in the urgent safeguarding list, and 22 in the best practices list).
- 22.
The 2005 Convention is today in force for 148 States.
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Scovazzi, T. (2021). International Legal Instruments as a Means for the Protection of Cultural Heritage. In: Niglio, O., Lee, E.Y.J. (eds) Transcultural Diplomacy and International Law in Heritage Conservation. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-0309-9_11
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