Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Smugglers and Samaritans: Criminalising the Smuggling of Migrants in International and Australian Law

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Crimmigration in Australia

Abstract

The intersection of criminal law and immigration law has been most pronounced in the context of smuggling of migrants. Seen by some as ruthless criminals exploiting vulnerable people, others describe migrant smugglers as Samaritans who support migrants desperate to flee persecution and poverty. Australia’s response to the smuggling of migrants has been particularly contentious and departs from international requirements in multiple ways. This chapter explores the criminalisation of smuggling of migrants in international and Australian law and demonstrates how criminal law has been instrumentalised to cover up critical gaps in immigration law and policy.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 139.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 179.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 179.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. 1.

    Senate Standing Committee for the Scrutiny of Bills 2002, p. 17; and Law Council of Australia 2012; p. 10.

  2. 2.

    Fogelmann 1995; Reinisch 2017.

  3. 3.

    Bundesgerichtshof [German Federal Court of Justice] III ZR 185/77, 29 September 1977.

  4. 4.

    Kirchner and di Pepe 1990, p. 668; Andreas 1997, p. 37; Martin 2001, pp. 8, 13.

  5. 5.

    Backers-Morrison and Backers-Morrison 2001, p. 71; Gallagher 2009, p.79.

  6. 6.

    UN General Assembly 1993, para. 1.

  7. 7.

    Ibid. para. 3. See also, Gallagher and David 2014, pp. 30–31.

  8. 8.

    UN Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice 1994a. para. 29.

  9. 9.

    UN Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice 1994b.

  10. 10.

    UN Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice 1994c.

  11. 11.

    UN Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice 1994a, para. 9.

  12. 12.

    UN Economic and Social Council 1994.

  13. 13.

    UN General Assembly 1994, p. 22, para. 99. UN General Assembly 1997a, p. 2, para. 3.

  14. 14.

    UN Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice 1995a, pp. 17–20, b, para. 71, 1997a, b, c, p. 130, paras. 74–75.

  15. 15.

    UN Economic and Social Council 1995.

  16. 16.

    IMO Legal Committee 1997.

  17. 17.

    See further, Mallia 2010, pp. 112–116; Kirchner and di Pepe 1990, pp. 664–668; Schloenhardt 2003, pp. 347–348.

  18. 18.

    UN General Assembly 1997b.

  19. 19.

    Ibid. p. 2, paras. 2, 4. See further, McClean 2007, pp. 21–22; Kirchner and di Pepe 1990, p. 670.

  20. 20.

    See also, Gallagher, 2015 pp. 190–191.

  21. 21.

    UN General Assembly 2000 p. xxv; 1998.

  22. 22.

    See Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea, and Air, Art. 22. [Smuggling Protocol].

  23. 23.

    Smuggling Protocol,

  24. 24.

    Art. 2Smuggling Protocol.

  25. 25.

    Ibid. Art. 1(1). See generally, Schloenhardt 2015 pp. 409–433.

  26. 26.

    Smuggling Protocol, Art. 6.

  27. 27.

    Ibid. Arts. 10–14.

  28. 28.

    Ibid. Art. 18.

  29. 29.

    Legislative Guides, p. 342.

  30. 30.

    Ibid. p. 351.

  31. 31.

    Cf. McClean 2007 p. 396.

  32. 32.

    UN Conference of States Parties to the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime 2011, p. 3. para. 11.

  33. 33.

    Cf. UNODC 2010, p. 29. See also, Schloenhardt and Davies 2013, pp. 976–980.

  34. 34.

    Reindl-Krauskopf and Grafl 2009, p. 66; See also, Schloenhardt and Davies 2013, pp. 969–976.

  35. 35.

    UN Conference of States Parties to the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime 2014, p. 4, para. 12.

  36. 36.

    Reindl-Krauskopf and Grafl 2009, p. 70.

  37. 37.

    Legislative Guides, p. 340.

  38. 38.

    UN General Assembly 2000 p. 17, para. 93.

  39. 39.

    UNODC 2010, p. 29.

  40. 40.

    Convention relating to the Status of Refugees [hereinafter Refugee Convention].

  41. 41.

    See further, Schloenhardt and Hickson 2013, pp. 45–47; and, Young 2003, pp. 117–118.

  42. 42.

    See also, Smuggling Protocol, Art. 18.

  43. 43.

    Legislative Guides, p. 347.

  44. 44.

    UN Conference of States Parties to the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime 2012, p. 4, para. 12.

  45. 45.

    Migration Act s 236B.

  46. 46.

    Crimes Legislation Amendment (Slavery, Slavery-Like Conditions and People Trafficking) Act2013 (Cth) sch 2.

  47. 47.

    Explanatory Memorandum 2012, p. 65.

  48. 48.

    See also Schloenhardt and Cottrell 2014, pp. 274–81.

  49. 49.

    See, for example, Department of Immigration and Border Protection 2014a, b, c.

  50. 50.

    Convention relating to the Status of Refugees.

  51. 51.

    R v Ambo, para. 10.

  52. 52.

    Ibid. para. 11.

  53. 53.

    Ibid. paras. 18–21.

  54. 54.

    Ibid. paras. 45, 47 per Knox DCJ.

  55. 55.

    Ibid. para. 50.

  56. 56.

    Cf R v Payara; Bodem 2012.

  57. 57.

    Deery 2011.

  58. 58.

    Explanatory Memorandum 2011, p. 4.

  59. 59.

    Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees; Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees [hereinafter referred to as Refugee Protocol].

  60. 60.

    Senate Legal and Constitutional Affairs Legislation Committee 2011, para. 2.42.

  61. 61.

    See, for example, R v Ambo, p. 44; Kartinyeri v The Commonwealth, p. 384; and, Plaintiff S157/2002 v The Commonwealth, p. 493.

  62. 62.

    UNHCR 1992, para. 28.

  63. 63.

    R v Ambo, p. 23.

  64. 64.

    Ibid.

  65. 65.

    See Migration Act, ss 233A, 233B, 233C, 233D; Criminal Code (Cth) ss 73.1, 73.2, 73.3, 73.3A.

  66. 66.

    Ahmadi v The Queen, para. 43.

  67. 67.

    Transcript of Proceedings, p. 3784. See further, Schloenhardt and Ezzy 2012.

  68. 68.

    See also, Grewcock 2010, p. 15.

  69. 69.

    See, for example, Immigration Advice and Rights Centre Inc. 2010, p. 3; Law Council of Australia 2010; Sydney Centre for International Law 2010.

  70. 70.

    Grewcock 2010, p. 15.

  71. 71.

    R v Ambo, para. 42.

  72. 72.

    Hathaway 2008.

References

Case Law

International Agreements

  • Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, opened for signature 28 July 1951, 189 UNTS 137 (entered into force 22 April 1954)

    Google Scholar 

  • Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea, and Air, opened for signature 12 December 2000, 2241 UNTS 507 (entered into force 28 January 2004)

    Google Scholar 

  • Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, opened for signature 31 January 1967, 606 UNTS 267 (entered into force 4 October 1967)

    Google Scholar 

  • United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime, opened for signature 12 Decmber 2000, 2225 UNTS 209 (entered into force 29 September 2003)

    Google Scholar 

  • Universal Declaration of Human Rights (entered into force 10 December 1948)

    Google Scholar 

Legislation

  • Anti-People Smuggling and Other Measures Act 2010 (Cth)

    Google Scholar 

  • Crimes Legislation Amendment (People Smuggling, Firearms Trafficking and Other Measures) Act 2002 (Cth)

    Google Scholar 

  • Crimes Legislation Amendment (Slavery, Slavery-Like Conditions and People Trafficking) Act 2013 (Cth)

    Google Scholar 

  • Criminal Code n.d. (Cth)

    Google Scholar 

  • Deterring People Smuggling Act 2011 (Cth)

    Google Scholar 

  • Migration Act 1958 (Cth)

    Google Scholar 

  • Migration Legislation Amendment Act (No 1) 1999 (Cth)

    Google Scholar 

Secondary Sources

  • Andreas P (1997) The rise of the American crimefare state. World Policy Journal 14(3):37–45

    Google Scholar 

  • Backers-Morrison J, Backers-Morrison S (2001) The dark side of globalisation: the criminalisation of refugees. Race & Class 43(1):71–74

    Google Scholar 

  • Bodem G (2012) Accused people smuggler freed. 3 September 2012. Available via SBS News. http://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/1688697/Accused-people-smuggler-freed. Accessed 4 May 2018

  • Deery S (2011) Landmark case may force review of immigration laws. 31 August 2011. Available via Herald Sun. http://www.heraldsun.com.au/news/victoria/landmark-case-may-force-review-of-immigration-laws/story-fn7x8me2-1226126166284. Accessed 30 March 2019

  • Department of Immigration and Border Protection (2014a) Operation sovereign borders – joint agency task force update [Media release] 7 March 2014. Available via https://newsroom.abf.gov.au/channels/Operation-Sovereign-Borders/releases/operation-sovereign-borders-joint-agency-task-force-update-10. Accessed 30 March 2019

  • Department of Immigration and Border Protection (2014b) Joint agency task force monthly update: August 2014 [Media release] 1 September 2014. Available via https://newsroom.abf.gov.au/channels/media-releases/releases/joint-agency-task-force-monthly-update-august. Accessed 30 March 2019

  • Department of Immigration and Border Protection (2014c) Charges – project TRICORD/operation POLO. [Media release] 5 May 2014. Available via https://newsroom.abf.gov.au/releases/project-tricord-operation-polo. Accessed 30 March 2019

  • Explanatory Memorandum (2011) Deterring People Smuggling Bill 2011 (Cth). Available via Parlinfo. https://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/download/legislation/ems/r4694_ems_b16e7931-0cc6-4e8f-b85e-2b36e632df06/upload_pdf/361932.pdf;fileType=application%2Fpdf. Accessed 30 March 2019

  • Explanatory Memorandum (2012) Crimes Legislation Amendment (Slavery, Slavery-like Conditions and People Trafficking) Bill 2012 (Cth). Availabe via Parlinfo. https://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/download/legislation/ems/r4840_ems_e18ea7e8-91f4-4c8d-958c-bddb635b505a/upload_pdf/369090.pdf;fileType=application%2Fpdf. Accessed 30 March 2019

  • Fogelmann E (1995) Wir waren keine Helden: Lebensretter im Angesicht des Holocaust. Campus Verlag, Frankfurt

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallagher A (2009) Human rights and human trafficking: Quagmire or frim ground? A response to James Hathaway. Virginia Journal of International Law 49(4):489–848

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallagher A (2015): Migrant smuggling. In: Boister N, Currie RJ (eds) The Routledge handbook on transnational organized crime. Routledge, Abingdon, p 187–209

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallagher A, David F (2014) The international law of migrant smuggling. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Grewcock M (2010) “Scum of the earth?” People smuggling, criminalization and refugees. Human Rights Defender 19(3):14–16

    Google Scholar 

  • Hathaway J (2008) The human rights quagmire of ‘Human trafficking’. Virginia Journal of International Law 49(1):1–59

    Google Scholar 

  • Immigration Advice and Rights Centre Inc (2010) Submission 7 to the Inquiry into the Anti-People Smuggling and Other Measures Bill 2010. Senate Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs. 14 April 2010

    Google Scholar 

  • IMO Legal Committee (1997) Proposed multilateral convention to combat illegal migration by sea. IMO Doc LEG 76/11/1. 1 August 1997

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirchner A, di Pepe L (1990) International attempts to conclude a convention to combat illegal migration. International Journal of Refugee Law 10(4):662–674

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Law Council of Australia (2010) Submission 9 to the Inquiry into the Anti-People Smuggling and Other Measures Bill 2010. Senate Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs. April 2010

    Google Scholar 

  • Law Council of Australia (2012) Submission 7 to the Inquiry into the Migration Amendment (Removal of Mandatory Minimum Penalties) Bill 2012. Senate Legal and Constitutional Affairs Legislation Committee. 8 February 2012

    Google Scholar 

  • Legislative guide for the implementation of the Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, supplementing the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime n.d.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mallia P (2010) Migrant smuggling by sea. Brill, Leiden

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Martin S (2001) New issues in refugee research. Global migration trends and asylum. Available via refworld. https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/4ff56fb82.pdf. Accessed 29 March 2019

  • McClean D (2007) Transnational organised crime. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Reindl-Krauskopf S, Grafl C (2009) Kriminalität nicht integrierter Ausländer — eine vielfältige Herausforderung für das Strafrecht. Manz, Vienna

    Google Scholar 

  • Reinisch L (2017) Fluchthilfe aus Österreich in der NS-Zeit 1938–1945. In: Schloenhardt A (ed) Schlepperkriminalität in Österreich. NWV, Vienna, p 81–106

    Google Scholar 

  • Schloenhardt A (2003) Migrant smuggling: illegal migration and organized crime in Australia and the Asia Pacific region. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Leiden

    Google Scholar 

  • Schloenhardt A (2015) Transnational organised crime. In: Boister N, Currie RJ (eds) The Routledge handbook on transnational organized crime. Routledge, Abingdon, p 409–433

    Google Scholar 

  • Schloenhardt A, Cottrell T (2014) Financing the smuggling of migrants in Australia. Criminal Law Journal 38(5):265–286

    Google Scholar 

  • Schloenhardt A, Davies C (2013) Smugglers and Samaritans: defences to people smuggling in Australia. UNSW Law Journal 36(3):954–983

    Google Scholar 

  • Schloenhardt A, Ezzy L (2012) Hadi Ahmadi – and the myth of the ‘people smuggler’s business model. Monash Law Review 38(3):120–147

    Google Scholar 

  • Schloenhardt A, Hickson H (2013) Non-criminalization of smuggled migrants: rights, obligations and Australian practice under article 5 of the Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea, and Air. International Journal of Refugee Law 25(1):39–64

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Senate Legal and Constitutional Affairs Legislation Committee (2011) Deterring People Smuggling Bill 2011. Chapter 2. Key Issues. Available via Parliament of Australia. https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Legal_and_Constitutional_Affairs/Completed_inquiries/2010-13/deterringpeoplesmugglingbill2011/report/c02. Accessed 30 March 2019

  • Senate Standing Committee for the Scrutiny of Bills, Parliament of Australia, First Report of 2002 (First Report, 2002)

    Google Scholar 

  • Sydney Centre for International Law (2010) Submission 11 to the Inquiry into the Anti-People Smuggling and Other Measures Bill 2010. Senate Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs. 15 April 2010

    Google Scholar 

  • Transcript of Proceedings, R v Ahmadi (District Court of Western Australia, 12/2010, Stavrianou DCJ, 24 September 2010)

    Google Scholar 

  • UN Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice (1994a) Report of the Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice on its 3rd session, UN Doc E/CN.15/1994/12

    Google Scholar 

  • UN Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice (1994b) Criminal justice action to combat the organized smuggling of illegal migrants across national boundaries, UN Doc E/CN.15/1994/L.8 (4 May 1994)

    Google Scholar 

  • UN Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice (1994c) Criminal justice action to combat the smuggling of illegal migrants across national boundaries, UN Doc E/CN.15/1994/L.8/Rev.1 (6 May 1994)

    Google Scholar 

  • UN Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice (1995a) Report of the Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice on its Fourth Session, UN Doc E/CN.15/1995/13 (1995)

    Google Scholar 

  • UN Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice (1995b) Measures to combat the smuggling of migrants, Report of the Secretary-General, UN Doc E/CN.15/1996/4 (21 March 1996)

    Google Scholar 

  • UN Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice (1997a) International Cooperation in Combatting Transnational Organized Crime: Smuggling of Illegal Migrants, UN Doc E/CN.15/1997/8 (18 February 1997)

    Google Scholar 

  • UNODC (1997) International cooperation in combating transnational crime: smuggling of illegal migrants – measures to combat the smuggling of migrants: report of the Secretary-General (Addendum) UN Doc E/CN.15/1997/8/Add.1 (8 April 1997b)

    Google Scholar 

  • UN Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice (1997c) Report on the Sixth Session, UN Doc E/CN.15/1997/21

    Google Scholar 

  • UN Conference of States Parties to the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (2011) Working Group on the Smuggling of Migrants, Challenges and good practices in the criminalization, investigation and prosecution of the smuggling of migrants, UN Doc CTOC/COP/WG.7/2012/2 (21 March 2012)

    Google Scholar 

  • UN Economic and Social Council (1994) Criminal justice action to combat the organized smuggling of illegal migrants across national boundaries, UN Doc E/1994/14 (25 July 1994)

    Google Scholar 

  • UN Economic and Social Council (1995) Criminal justice action to combat the organized smuggling of illegal migrants across national boundaries, UN Doc E/1995/10 (24 July 1995)

    Google Scholar 

  • UN General Assembly (1993) Prevention of the smuggling of aliens, UN Doc A/RES/48/102 (20 December 1993)

    Google Scholar 

  • UN General Assembly (1994) Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice: Measures to combat alien smuggling; Report of the Secretary-General, UN Doc A/49/350 (30 August 1994)

    Google Scholar 

  • UN General Assembly (1997a) Measures for prevention of the smuggling of aliens, UN Doc A/RES/61/62 (28 January 1997)

    Google Scholar 

  • UN General Assembly (1997b) Letter dated 16 September from the Permanent Representative of Austria to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General, UN Doc A/52/357 (17 September 1997)

    Google Scholar 

  • UN General Assembly (2000) Report of the Ad Hoc Committee on the Elaboration of a Convention against Transnational Organized Crime on the work of its first to eleventh sessions; Addendum: Interpretative notes for the official record (travaux préparatoires) of the negotiations for the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the Protocols thereto, UN Doc A/55/383/Add.1 (3 November 2000)

    Google Scholar 

  • UN General Assembly (1998) Resolution on Transnational Organized Crime UN Doc A/RES/53/111 (9 December 1998)

    Google Scholar 

  • UNHCR (1992) Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status under the 1951 Convention and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees, UN Doc HCR/1P/4/Eng/Rev.2 (January 1992)

    Google Scholar 

  • UNODC (2010) Toolkit to Combat Smuggling of Migrants. Tool 1: Understanding the smuggling of migrants. Available via UNODC. https://www.unodc.org/documents/human-trafficking/SOM_Toolkit_E-book_english_Combined.pdf. Accessed 30 March 2019

  • Young MA (2003) The smuggling and trafficking of refugees and asylum seekers: Is the international community neglecting the duty to protect the persecuted in the pursuit of transnational organized crime? Suffolk Transnational Law Review 27(1):101–126

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia

    Andreas Schloenhardt

  2. Department of Criminal Law and Criminology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria

    Andreas Schloenhardt

Authors
  1. Andreas Schloenhardt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Andreas Schloenhardt .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. TC Beirne School of Law, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia

    Peter Billings

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Schloenhardt, A. (2019). Smugglers and Samaritans: Criminalising the Smuggling of Migrants in International and Australian Law. In: Billings, P. (eds) Crimmigration in Australia. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9093-7_11

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9093-7_11

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore

  • Print ISBN: 978-981-13-9092-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-981-13-9093-7

  • eBook Packages: Law and CriminologyLaw and Criminology (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation