Abstract
In this chapter, I fill a gap in the crimmigration literature by analysing the gendered dimensions of ‘marriage migration’ to Australia. For this purpose, I describe three case studies: mail order brides 1980s to 2002, human trafficking for marriage from the 2000s, and the legislative response to forced marriage in 2013. I argue that a focus on prevention of conduct and protection of migrant women (and girls) has overshadowed gender as an important aspect of the gatekeeper role of the crimmigration response. I demonstrate that the ‘intersectional’ features of the crimmigration nexus in the context of marriage migration include gender, culture, and identity; that gender is an embodiment of cultural values and is linked to the community, national identity and membership.
This chapter is an outcome of an Australian Research Council (ARC) funded Discovery Project entitled, ‘Development of a Legal Framework for Regulation of International Marriage Migration’ for which Professor Susan Kneebone is Chief Investigator. The support of the ARC is gratefully acknowledged. Thanks also to Reyvi Marinas, Thomas Harré and Sayomi Ariyawansa for extensive and helpful research and editing assistance associated with this chapter.
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Notes
- 1.
Stumpf 2006, p. 376.
- 2.
Ibid. p. 380.
- 3.
Weber and McCulloch 2018, pp. 1–19, extend Stumpf’s analysis by presenting a comprehensive analysis of three theoretical positions of crimmigration, namely penology, criminology and border control (in particular ‘enemy penology’).
- 4.
This is based on Michael Walzer’s theory of membership, Walzer 1983, pp. 31–35, which is discussed further below.
- 5.
Stumpf 2006, pp. 396-7.
- 6.
Hartry 2012.
- 7.
Ibid. p. 23.
- 8.
And thus distinct from the type of international marriage which results from a voluntary union between two equal individuals of different nationalities. See Irving 2016.
- 9.
Wray et al. 2014. This article analyses the implementation of the Family Reunion and Citizens’ Directives in the EU context, and shows the common concern of states in family reunification and formation in regulating marriage migration.
- 10.
- 11.
Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children (Trafficking Protocol). The Trafficking Protocol emphasises the position of ‘women and children’ as victims (Art. 2 – ‘Statement of purpose’); Part II of the Protocol is directed at ‘Protection of victims of trafficking …’; Part III deals with ‘Prevention, cooperation and other measures ‘and focuses in particular upon protecting ‘especially women and children’ from ‘revictimization’ (Art. 9(1)(b)) and vulnerability to trafficking (Art. 9(4)). See also, McSherry and Kneebone 2008.
- 12.
Irving 2016.
- 13.
Chung, Kim and Piper 2016.
- 14.
- 15.
Toyota 2008, p. 3.
- 16.
Constable 2005, p. 4.
- 17.
Kim 2012.
- 18.
- 19.
Kneebone and Debeljak 2012, pp. 46–54.
- 20.
I acknowledge the different views on this issue, including the view that sex work is work. These views are discussed in Kneebone and Debeljak 2012, pp. 46–54.
- 21.
- 22.
Kneebone and Debeljak 2012.
- 23.
See also Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence (‘Istanbul Convention’); Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women.
- 24.
UNHCR 2002, para. 18.
- 25.
Macklin 2004, p. 176.
- 26.
Kneebone and Debeljak 2012, pp. 73–5.
- 27.
Cunneen and Stubbs 1996, p. 131.
- 28.
Ibid.
- 29.
Kneebone 2017.
- 30.
- 31.
Saroca 2006.
- 32.
Ibid. pp. 75–6, citing Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs (“DIMA”) 2005.
- 33.
Saroca 2006, p. 76 citing DIMA 2005. Note the same statistics are cited in Cuneen and Stubbs 1996, p. 134. They do not reveal whether some of the ‘Australian male residents’ were by origin from the Philippines, but the issue of violence within a marriage discussed by both Cuneen and Stubbs and Saroca arose from cases of husbands from a non-Filipino background.
- 34.
Wall 1983, p. 218.
- 35.
Ibid. p. 219.
- 36.
Birrell 1995.
- 37.
Ibid. p. 10.
- 38.
Ibid. p. 9.
- 39.
Ibid.
- 40.
Berg and Crock, p. 181.
- 41.
Birrell 1995, p. 11.
- 42.
Australian Law Reform Commission 2011.
- 43.
Roma 2013.
- 44.
Ibid. p. 209.
- 45.
Ibid.
- 46.
Ibid. p. 232.
- 47.
- 48.
Both judicial and non-judicially determined evidence are acceptable (see Migration Regulations, Division Part 1, Division 1.5). Examples of judicially determined includes an injunction under the Family Law Act 1975 (Cth), court orders or convictions against the spouse for an act of violence against the visa applicant or members of the family unit.
- 49.
Migration Regulations, reg. 1.21(1).
- 50.
- 51.
Australian Law Reform Commission 2011, p. 21.
- 52.
Betts 2003, p. 178.
- 53.
- 54.
Cunneen and Stubbs 1996, p. 130.
- 55.
Ibid. p. 137.
- 56.
Saroca 2006.
- 57.
Waktins 1982, c.f. Robinson 1982.
- 58.
See Constable 2005, p. 6, who describes a similar discourse in Canada.
- 59.
Wall 1983.
- 60.
Cunneen and Stubbs 1996.
- 61.
See also Saroca 2006, p. 85.
- 62.
Cuneen and Stubbs 1996.
- 63.
Bonifacio 2009.
- 64.
Saroca 2006.
- 65.
Cuneen and Stubbs 1996, table 1, p. 142.
- 66.
Ibid. p. 145–6.
- 67.
R v Schembri (Supreme Court of Victoria, Vincent J, 9 July 1990).
- 68.
Ramilo 1998.
- 69.
Cuneen and Stubbs 1996, p. 153.
- 70.
Ibid. p. 153.
- 71.
Hunt 2002.
- 72.
Following some legislative reform in 1999 and 2002, the government announced a $20 million package to combat trafficking in persons in 2003: see Downer 2013.
- 73.
Kelly et al. 1999, p. 1.
- 74.
AIC 2014.
- 75.
Ibid. pp. 7–8.
- 76.
See R v Kovacs; R v Foad Ali Solaiman.
- 77.
AIC 2014, p. ix.
- 78.
McSherry and Kneebone 2008.
- 79.
See R v Tang, this was the context of the first ‘trafficking’ prosecution which was in fact brought under the then slavery provisions of the Criminal Code.
- 80.
R v Kovacs
- 81.
AIC 2014, box. 3, p. 6.
- 82.
United Nations Convention against Transnational Organised Crime (‘CTOC’); Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children; Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air (‘Migrant Protocol’).
- 83.
McSherry and Kneebone 2008. The visas have subsequently been renamed but are still essentially tied to participation in the criminal justice system. The fact that a trafficked person cannot apply directly for a visa but must be recommended for one by the Australian Federal Police also underlies the criminal justice objectives of Australia’s protection regime.
- 84.
For example, R v Kovacs.
- 85.
See, Sieders and Yotchomchin. Ironically, the objective was to acquire work rights through a protection visa,
- 86.
VXAJ v MIMIA.
- 87.
Ibid. para. 88.
- 88.
- 89.
Kneebone 2014.
- 90.
Ibid.
- 91.
Sydney Morning Herald 2005.
- 92.
AIC 2014, p. 7.
- 93.
Ibid. p. 42.
- 94.
- 95.
Askola 2018. However, I note that the Coalition Government announced changes to the Support for Trafficked People Program in 2018 that allows victims of forced marriage to access assistance (for an extended period of up to 200 days) without having to participate in the criminal justice process: Australian Government 2018.
- 96.
Bonjour and de Hart 2013.
- 97.
Bredal 2008.
- 98.
Bonjour and de Hart 2013.
- 99.
Criminal Code Act 1995 (Cth) s 270. 4
- 100.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (‘UDHR’), Art. 4; International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, (‘ICCPR’); Arts. 8(1), 8(2).
- 101.
- 102.
Shahinian 2012.
- 103.
Ibid. para. 18.
- 104.
Ibid. para. 8.
- 105.
Australian Government 2010, p. 6, citing evidence from the UK.
- 106.
Ibid. p. 16.
- 107.
Ibid.
- 108.
Commonwealth of Australia 2012, p. 6225.
- 109.
Patton 2018, p. 21.
- 110.
Ibid. p. 35.
- 111.
Australian Government 2010, para. 15.
- 112.
Askola 2018.
- 113.
Simmons and Burns 2013.
- 114.
Crimes Legislation Amendment (Powers and Other Measures) Act 2015 (Cth); Askola 2018, p. 989.
- 115.
RMIT University and The Salvation Army Freedom Partnership to End Modern Slavery 2018, p. 14.
- 116.
Kneebone and Teshome 2012.
- 117.
Ibid p. 9
- 118.
RMIT University and The Salvation Army Freedom Partnership to End Modern Slavery 2018, p. 4.
- 119.
Kneebone and Teshome 2012.
- 120.
McGuire 2014.
- 121.
Ibid. p. 10.
- 122.
Marginson and Almarhoun in, McGuire 2014, pp. 56–57.
- 123.
Avdibegovic and Taneski in, McGuire 2014, p. 54.
- 124.
Patton 2018.
- 125.
Centre for Multicultural Youth 2016, pp. 9–10.
- 126.
RMIT University and The Salvation Army Freedom Partnership to End Modern Slavery 2018.
- 127.
- 128.
Zeweri 2018, p. 13.
- 129.
AIC 2018, p. 2.
- 130.
Ibid. pp. 15–8.
- 131.
RMIT University and The Salvation Army Freedom Partnership to End Modern Slavery 2018, see Appendix 2.
- 132.
Zeweri 2018.
- 133.
See also Prattis and El Matrah 2017.
- 134.
- 135.
- 136.
Shahinian 2012, p. 16.
- 137.
See also, Sowey 2017.
- 138.
- 139.
Prattis and El Matrah 2017, p. 1.
- 140.
Sowey 2017, p. 9.
- 141.
Bonjour and de Hart 2013, p. 63.
- 142.
Ibid. p. 61.
- 143.
Bredal 2008, p. 346.
- 144.
Walzer 1983.
- 145.
Ibid. p. 41.
References
Case Law
R v Foad Ali Solaiman [2008] NSWDC 53 (20 March 2008)
R v Kovacs [2009] 2 Qd R 51
R v Schembri (Supreme Court of Victoria, Vincent J, 9 July 1990)
R v Sieders and Yotchomchin [2008] NSWCCA 187
R v Tang (2008) 237 CLR 1
VXAJ v Minister for immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs (2006) 198 FLR 455
Legislation
Anti-Mail Order Bride Law 1990 (RA 6695)
Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act2003 (RA 9208)
Crimes Legislation Amendment (Powers and Other Measures) Act 2015 (Cth)
Crimes Legislation Amendment (Slavery, Slavery-like Conditions and People Trafficking) Act 2013 (Cth)
Criminal Code Act 1995 (Cth)
Family Law Act 1975 (Cth)
Migration Regulations 1994 (Cth)
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Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence, signed 11 May 2011, CETS No 10 (entered into force 1 August 2014)
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Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea, and Air, opened for signature 12 December 2000, 2241 UNTS 507 (entered into force 28 January 2004)
Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Slavery, Servitude, Forced Labour and Similar Institutions and Practices Convention, opened for signature 15 November 2000, 60 LNTS 253 (entered into force 25 Decmber 2003)
Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children, opened for signature 12 December 2000, 2237 UNTS 319 (entered into force 25 December 2003)
Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery, opened for signature 7 September 1956, 226 UNTS 3 (entered into force 30 April 1957)
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Kneebone, S. (2019). Marriage, Migration and Gender: A Site for Crimmigration? An Australian Case Study. In: Billings, P. (eds) Crimmigration in Australia. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9093-7_10
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