Keywords

1 Introduction

Herbal medicine and medicinal plants are playing an integral role in the modern healthcare system. Acceptance and utilization of herbal medicine are increasing day by day for their better compatibility, lesser side effect, and economic health management. Herbal sources are mainly used as medicine, cosmetic and supplement (Sen and Chakraborty 2017; Sen et al. 2011). The growing interest towards the herbal medicines made this a prime area of research and development. India is a rich repository of codified and folk knowledge of medicinal plants as well as differences in climatic condition, attitude, and rainfall makes this land a gold mine of medicinal plants. The word “herb” taken from the Latin word, “herba” and an old French word “herbe” (Rajak and Singh 2017). The market of traditional medicinal plants and herbal formulations are also lucrative and increasing day by day. Indian traditional medicine is well-established traditional medicinal system and received global acceptance particularly Ayurveda. The demand for Ayurvedic and other herbal medicine is increasing day by day. A number of herbal formulations are presently available in market equally competing allopathic medicines. Codified medicinal texts like Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha are the main sources of information for the preparations of marketed herbal products. World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that about 80% world population rely on herbal medicines mainly in their primary healthcare needs. It is estimated that 300,000 plant species exist globally and only 15% have been screened to find their possible therapeutic potential (De Luca et al. 2012). Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, documented more than 9500 plant species based on their importance in the pharmaceutical industry. Medicinal and aromatic plants MAP species are collected from wild sources and comparatively a few are grown in farmland (Maiti and Geetha 2007). Maximum herbal industries are collection the medicinal plants/plant parts from the forest source. The excessive or irrational collection may also result in threat to the availability of medicinal plants. Loss of biodiversity, industrializations are became a big threat to medicinal plants species (Kala et al. 2006; Sen and Chakraborty 2017). Therefore, conservation of medicinal plants and commercial harvesting of medicinal plants could be useful for sustainable availability of medicinal plants. Collection of forest source in different season and different area may vary the phytochemical content which may ultimately effect in the biological activity of the plant. Commercial herbal garden is one of the very effective solutions to overcome these problems. Scientific research and science tools developed a number of isolated phytochemicals with prominent biological activity. A number of drugs are inspired from the isolated phytochemicals and successfully used in the management of modern healthcare. Recent era, the growing market of herbal medicine has an important aspect of economic growth of the country. This article deals with majorly deals cultivation with some very common and commercially important medicinal plants of India.

2 Important Medicinal Plants of India

2.1 Yam

Botanical Name: Dioscorea spp.

Family: Dioscoreaceae.

The chemical present in the yam is diosgenin, which is obtained from tubers root of dioscorea and important chemical for several steroid hormones including sex hormones, cortisone, and various corticosteroids and is the major ingredient in the oral birth control pill. The growing necessity for steroidal drugs and the high expenditure of obtaining them from animal sources led to an extensive search for plant sources of steroidal sapogenins; which eventually led to the identification of the Genus Dioscorea as the most promising one. This genus Dioscorea with more than 600 species is broadly distributed in the tropical world. The species like Dioscorea alata and Dioscorea esculenta are also cultivated for their edible tuber and time of cultivation time is longer. About 15 Dioscorea species contain diosgenin. Among them, Dioscorea floribunda, Dioscorea villosa, Dioscorea composita etc. are extensively grown for diosgenin production. The diosgenin content ranges from 2% to 7% based on the age of the tuber (Das et al. 2013; Bhattacharjee et al. 2015).

Cultivation details of Dioscorea spp.:

Climate and soil

Varieties

Propagation

Planting

Harvesting and yield

Subtropical warm humid weather and light soil; pH 5.5–6.5

FB(c)-l, Arka Upkar

Tubers

250–300 gm/piece/pit

60 cm × 30 cm (R-R × P-P) for 1 year crop

60 cm × 45 cm (R-R × P-P) for 2 year crop

February-March

50–60 tonnes/ha

2.2 Sarpagandha

Botanical Name: Rauvolfia serpentina.

Family: Apocynaceae.

Rauvolfia (Sarpagandha) or Serpentine root is one of the vital crude drugs used in present medicine and known since 3000 years (Dey and De 2010). Roots are prominent, tuberous, usually branched, 0.5–2.6 cm girth, 40–60 cm long into soil. The bark of root, which constitutes 40–60% of total root volume, is rich in alkaloids known for their usefulness in lowering high blood pressure and as a sedative or tranquillizing agent. The fresh roots give a unique acrid aroma and are very astringent in taste. The root contains high alkaloid concentration. In allopathic means of medicine, reserpine is the most active principle used for hypertension for life-saving drug.

Cultivation details of Sarpagandha:

Climate and soil

Variety

Propagation

Planting

Harvesting, processing and yield

Well suited at 10–30 °C and sandy alluvial loam to red lateritic loam and pH −4.6 to 6.5.

Wild and R.S-1

Seed and also by vegetative means like root stumps, and stem cutting.

Seedlings of 40–50 days and 30 cm  × 30 cm spacing, 80,000–1, 00,000/ha

After 30 months of planting (during winter months), the roots are cleaned, washed and cut into 12–15 cm pieces for drying and storage. Dry root 2000–2500 kg/ha.

2.3 Opium

Botanical Name: Papaver somniferum L.

Family: Papaveraceae.

Papaver somniferum is an outstanding medicinal plant. Opium and codeine are the products of opium that used for their analgesic and hypnotic property (Dhakad et al. 2017). A semi-synthetic morphine known as heroin has led to worldwide social problem. But morphine and another opium alkaloid still have important and non-replaceable role in the healthcare sector. Poppy is a strait, rarely branched, annual, growing to a length of 0.60–1.20 m. With operation of lancing on fruits (capsular) latex known as opium is obtained. In nature, all parts of the poppy plant have milky white latex, but large amount contains on unripe capsules.

Cultivation details of Sarpagandha:

Climate and soil

Variety

Propagation

Planting

Harvesting and yield

Cool climate favors high yield and light black or loam soil with highly fertility, pH around 7.0.

Ranghatak, Talia, Dhola Chota, Sujatha, NBRI-3 and Shubhra

Seed rate is 4–5 kg/ha for line and 7–8 kg/ha for broadcast.

broadcast or in lines, 30 cm  × 30 cm

95–115 days after sowing and 50–60 kg/ha.

2.4 Periwinkle

Botanical Name: Catharanthus roseus (L) G. Don.

Family: Apocynaceae.

It is one of the important medicinal plant’s mentions in the literature of folks medicinal. The plant has been extensively used as a purgative, abortifacient, antidiabetic, hemorrhagic antimalarial, diuretic, antidysenteric and against skin diseases by the antique people (Devi et al. 2017). Modern studies have shown that periwinkle contains more than 100 alkaloids found in various parts of the plant. Periwinkle gained additional importance after the separation of vinblastine and vincristine alkaloids which having importance in cancer (Moudi et al. 2013). Other alkaloids like rovidine, leurosovine and leurosidine isolated from the plant and acquired medicinal importance for their preclinical anticancer properties.

Cultivation details of Periwinkle:

Climate and soil

Variety

Propagation

Planting

Harvesting and Yield

Tropical and subtropical and deep sandy loam to loam soils

No improved variety

Periwinkle or Vinca is propagated by seeds

45 × 30 cm

After 6, 9 and 12 months of sowing. Yield- 4 t/ha of leaves, 1.5 t/ha of stem, and 1.5 t/ha of roots.

2.5 Aloe/Gheekumari

Botanical Name: Aloe spp (L) G. Don.

Family: Liliaceae.

It is commonly called as healing plant, miracle plant, fountain of youth and plant of immortality. Out of the 275 species, only three species are commercially vital which are the majorly used in pharmaceutical industries or medicinal purpose. They are: A. barbadensis, Mill. (A. vera Linn) which yields Indian aloe or Curacao aloe or Barbados aloe or Jaffarabad aloe, and A. ferox and yield Cape aloe, and A. perryi (socotrine aloe). Other aloe species (A. africana and A. spicata) yield aloes of lesser importance. Aloe gel or A. vera gel derived from the leaves, and the yellow, bitter juice present in specific cells underneath the bulky epidermis yields the drug aloe and the parenchymatous tissue in the leaf center found to contains a mucilaginous gel; at present it is obtained from A. barbadensis. Aloe contains cathartic anthraglycosides as its lively principles; are mostly C-glucosides, notably barbaloin (glucoside of aloe emodin) (Patel et al. 2012). The concentrations glucosides may differ with the types of aloe varying from 4.5% to 25% of aloin. Aloe gel is well known for domestic medicinal importance. For this cause, Aloe vera is also called first-aid for burn or medicine plant. When newly obtained, the gel has the property of relieving sunburn and thermal burns, also wound healing; it has moisturizing and emollient properties. As a food, aloe extracts are used as a flavor ingredient mainly in non-alcoholic and alcoholic beverages.

Cultivation details of Aloe:

Climate and soil

Variety

Propagation

Planting

Harvesting and yield

Warm, humid or dry climate and sandy coastal to loamy soils of the plains with a pH of up to 8.5

Non

By root-suckers or rhizome cuttings

60 cm × 30 cm or 60 cm × 45 cm

Harvested eight months after planting and around 10,000–12,000 kg/ha

2.6 Guggal

Botanical Name: Commiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhandari syn. Commiphora mukul.

Family: Burseraceae.

The gum is acrid, bitter, thermogenic, astringent, expectorant, aromatic, anthelmintic, digestive, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, anodyne, nervine tonic, alterative, aphrodisiac, stimulant, antispasmodic, liver tonic, hemostatic, emmenagogue, rejuvenating, diuretic, general tonic (Joy et al. 1998), and is useful in scrofula, gout, sciatica, facial paralysis cough, diplegia, asthma, pectoral, bronchitis and hepatic, otorrhoea, disorders, fever, epilepsy, stangury, dysmenorrhoea, hemorrhoids, wounds, amenorrhea and ulcers.

Cultivation details of Guggal:

Climate and soil

Variety

Propagation

Planting

Harvesting and yield

Warm, humid or dry climate and sandy to silt-loam or rocky soils

No

Semi-wood stem cuttings

Rainy season

After 8–10 years ready for tapping of the gum by shallow incision on bark during December and March and 500–800 g gums per plant.

2.7 Belladona

Botanical Name: Atropa belladonna L.

Family: Solanaceae.

Atrops is commonly called as ‘Deadly night Shade’. The commercial drug is obtained from the roots, leaves and flowering tops of A.belladonna. Belladonna leaves are extensively used for the produce of tinctures and plasters. The drug serves as a sedative, anodyne, stimulant, antiasthmatic, antidiuretic, antispasmodic and anti-inflammatory. It is found beneficial in treatment of stomach, renal disorders, bilary colic, and to stop sweating. The roots are mainly used in the external treatment of rheumatism, gout and other affiliations.

Cultivation details of Belladonna:

Climate and soil

Variety

Propagation

Planting

Harvesting and Yield

Perennial in temperate climates and deep fertile soils of medium texture.

Gurguva

Seeds and May to the end of autumn

March–April or October–November

3 months after planting and average of 1000 kg of dry herb, 1500 kg per hectare during second and third years and dry roots will vary from 170 to 335 kg/ha.

2.8 Nux Vomica

Botanical Name: Strychnosnux-vomica Linn.

Family: Strychnaceae (Loganiaceae).

Dried seeds or beans, and occasionally its bark (called nux vomica) are used in herbal remedies (Akbar et al. 2010). The seeds contain organic substances, brucine, and strychnine. Dried seeds of kuchila are stomachic, nervine, and aphrodisiac, cardio-tonic, and respiratory stimulant. It is used as a remedy in paralytic, chronic dysentery and neuralgic disorders, rheumatic arthritis, epilepsy, and hydrophobia. It is an important drug in all systems of medicine. Strychnos species is a deciduous tree, medium-sized, with fairly long and cylindrical bole and dark-grey or yellowish-grey bark with minute tubercles.

Cultivation details of Nux vomica:

Climate and soil

Variety

Propagation

Planting

Harvesting & Yield

Dry or humid tropical and laterite, sandy, and alluvial soil.

no

Seeds, also through cuttings

Onset of South-west monsoon in May or early June and 5 m × 5 m.

50–75 kg of dry seeds per tree per year.

2.9 Medicinal Solanum

Botanical: Solanum spp,

Family: Solanaceae.

Species include S. indicum, Solanum anguivi Lam. (Poison berry), Solanum nigrum Linn.(Black night shade), Solanum torvum (West Indian turkey berry), Solanum surattense Burm, Solanum khasianum C.B. Clarke. It is source of low cost steroidal drugs, due to its quick growth and low first investment in its commercial cultivation. It yields a solasodine, glyco-alkaloid, a nitrogen analogue of diosgenine. Solasodine through 16-dehydro-pregnenolone (16 DPA) is converted of compounds like methyl testosterone and testosterone and corticosteroids like hydrocortisone and predinisolone (Sunitha and Swapna 2014). These steroidal compounds have anabolic, anti-inflammatory and antifertility properties, due to which they find huge-scale use in family and health planning programs through the world.

Cultivation details of Medicinal Solanum:

Climate and soil

Variety

Propagation

Planting

Harvesting and Yield

Moderate climate red lateritic soil with a moderate quantity of organic matter.

Arka Sanjeevini, Arka Mahima, Pusa-1, RRL 20-2

Seed

June to September or October, 50 cm × 50 cm, 75 cm × 75 cm and 90 cm × 120 cm.

6 months to be ready for harvesting and 2500 kg/ha of dried.

2.10 Aonla/Amla

Botanical Name: Emblica officinalis Gaertn., Syn. Phyllanthus emblica,

Family: Euphorbiaceae.

Amla is an antioxidant with the free radical scavenging quality, which may be presence of high levels of super oxide dismutase (Hazra et al. 2010). It is efficient in the treatment of dyspepsia, peptic ulcer and diabetes. Further reported are antioxidant, hepatoprotective, cytoprotective, antimutagenic, antimicrobial and anti-tumor (Deori et al. 2017).

Cultivation details of Medicinal Amla:

Climate and soil

Variety

Propagation

Planting

Harvesting and Yield

Tropical plant and medium heavy soil except purely sandy

NA-7, NA-6, NA-10 and Chakaiya

Generally propagated by shield budding.

May–June and 4.5 m × 4.5 m.

After 4–5 years, harvested during February and 50–70 kg of fruit.

2.11 Senna

Botanical Name: Cassia angustifolia Vahl.

Family: Leguminaesae.

Senna is used in medicine as a cathartic and habitual constipation. It increases the peristaltic movement of the colon (Balasankar et al. 2013). Senna on storage, lose biological action faster than revealed by chemical estimation. The leaves/pods as such or in powder form do not lose potency easily (Sreeramu 2004).

Cultivation details of Medicinal Senna:

Climate and soil

Variety

Propagation

Planting

Harvesting and Yield

Sun-loving crop and tropical climate. Red loam, alluvial loam and the rich clayey rice-fields.

Thenkalam local type, ‘ALFT −2’ Sona and KKM 1

Seeds

Seeds are broadcast or 30 cm × 30 cm.

50–70 days, 90–100 days and 130–150 days after sowing. 15 q/ha of dry leaves and 7 q/ha of pods.

2.12 Isubgol

Botanical Name: Plantago ovata Forsk.

Family: Plantaginaceae.

Isabgol (Plantago ovata Forsk.) is key medicinal plants used widely that have originated from arid and semi-arid zones and widely used by traditional medicinal industries. It is an annual herb and cultivated in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana (Meena et al. 2015).

Cultivation details of Isabgol:

Climate and soil

Variety

Propagation

Planting

Harvesting and yield

Cool and dry weather, that is, from November–December to March–April and sandy loam to rich loamy soil with a pH of 7–8 is ideal

Gujarat Isabgol-1 Gujarat Isabgol-2, Gujarat Isabgol-3, Jawahar Isabgol-4, Hariyana Isabgol-5 and Niharika

Seed (4–6 kg/ha)

November–December

110–130 days after sowing and 800–1000 kg/ha.

2.13 Stevia

Botanical Name: Stevia rebaudiana.

Family: Asteraceae.

Stevia is a subtropical perennial that produces sweet steviol glycosides in the leaves for which it is also known as ‘Mou Tulsi’ or ‘Cheeni Tulsi’. Plants grown-up at higher latitudes generally has a higher percentage of sweet glycosides (Mathur et al. 2017). Origin of Stevia is North Eastern Paraguay. Stevia uses include regulating blood sugar, treatment of skin disorders, preventing hypertension and prevention decay of tooth. The compound obtains from stevia is consider to be the best alternate source of sugar for diabetic patient.

Cultivation details of Stevia:

Climate and soil

Variety

Propagation

Planting

Harvesting and Yield

Semi-humid subtropical plant and well-drained fertile sandy loam or loam soil and prefers acidic to neutral (pH 6–7) soil

S.R.B-123, S.R.B-512 and S.R.B-128

Stem cuttings @ 75,000/ha

March to mid- May and distance of 40 cm × 30 cm

4 months after planting during mid to late September. About 15,000 kg/ha of green herb is obtained which on drying gives about 4166 kg/ha.

2.14 Coleus

Botanical Name: Coleus forskohlii Syn: Coleus barbatus Brig.

Family: Lamiaceae

Coleus is used as an emmenagogue, expectorant and diuretic. Interestingly its foliage is employed for intestinal disorders treating, and it has been utilized as a condiment for a long time before in India. The tuberous roots of the plant similar to a carrot in shape and brown in color are the economical parts.

Cultivation details of Coleus:

Climate and soil

Variety

Propagation

Planting

Harvesting and Yield

Crop of the tropics, 10–25 °C and 100–160 cm rainfall and porous and well-drained soils pH from 5.5 to 7.

Garmai, Manganiper, Maimul and Selection K-8

Terminal cuttings (10 cm) or rooted cuttings..

June–July, 60 cm × 45 cm spacing (37,030 plants/ha).

4.5–5 months after planting. Fresh tubers: 15–20 t/ha

Dry tubers: 2000–2200 kg/ha.

2.15 Acorus

Botanical Name: Acorus calamus.

Family: Acoraceae (Araceae).

Acorus calamus is a semi-aquatic, perennial and smelly plant, habituated in both sub-temperate and temperate zones (Meena et al. 2010). It is very well known for the remedies of cold and cough and also like bronchitis. It is considered as a useful aid to the digestive system as it helps against colic, flatulent, dyspepsia and vomiting. It is composed in the formulation for psycho-somatic disorders like epilepsy and it roots having insect repellent characters.

Cultivation details of Acorus:

Climate and soil

Variety

Propagation

Planting

Harvesting and Yield

Sub tropical climate and shallow water or in a very moist loamy soil and pH 5.5–7.5

No

Roots/rhizomes and seeds.

–

Early spring before new growth, or late autumn and 1–1.5 tons of dry rhizome per acre

2.16 Ocimum (Holy Basil/Tulsi)

Botanical Name: Ocimum sanctum Linn.

Family: Lamiaceae/Labiatae.

Tulsi is one of the important medicinal plants of India, which has its medicinal and religious importance since ancient time. Essential oil of tulasi has various medicinal importance. It is extensively used as an herbal tea, commonly used in Ayurveda. It is widely used in various aspects drugs, flavouring insecticide, culinary purposes and perfumery. The plant possesses mainly phenols, tannins, aldehydes, saponin, and fats (Ansari 2015).

Cultivation details of Ocimum:

Climate and soil

Variety

Propagation

Planting

Harvesting and Yield

Fairly high rainfall and humid conditions, Rich loam to poor laterite, saline and alkaline to moderately acidic soils.

Sri Tulsi (green type) and Krishna Tulsi (second type)

Seed (200–300 g/ha)

Nursery- third week of February and transplanting-middle of April. 40 cm × 40 cm, 40 cm × 50 cm, 50 cm × 30 cm.

First harvest at full bloom i.e. 90–95 days after planting and harvested at every 65–75 days. About 5 tonnes/ha of fresh harvest can be obtained twice or thrice a year.

Yam, sarpagandha, opium, periwinkle, aloe, guggal, belladonna, nux vomica, medicinal solanum, aonla/amla, senna, isubgol, stevia, coleus, acorus, and ocimum are medicinally important plants. Researches on these plants isolated different important phytomolecule and investigated for their therapeutic potential. Table 8.1 included the major phytochemicals and pharmacological activity of these plants.

Table 8.1 Major phytoconstituents and pharmacological activity of selected medicinal plants of India
Full size table

3 Conclusion

Our lifestyle is becoming modernized as we are becoming more dependent on technology, adopting unhealthy lifestyle and moving away from nature. Herbs are important to maintain our health and discover of new medicine. Traditionally, we are gifted by our ancestors with medicinal knowledge and nature since its existence providing lot of herbs used for the ailments related to different seasons. Loss of biodiversity is huge problem or unscientific collection of medicinal plants from wild source will create a problem in future related to the sustainable availability of plant sources. Cultivation outside their natural habitat will be useful for sustainable availability of medicinal plants, preservation of medicinal plants and to promote economic development.