Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Protection of the Environment and Natural Resources in Armed Conflict

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
International Conflict and Security Law

Abstract

The environment and natural resources play a significant role in contemporary armed conflict. This chapter first briefly traces the history of the environmental consequences of armed conflict before examining relevant treaty-based laws of armed conflict and significant jurisprudence related to the protection of the environment and natural resources in both international and non-international armed conflict.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 349.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 449.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 449.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. 1.

    De Jong et al 2007, p. 18.

  2. 2.

    See Ross 1992, p. 516 for more examples.

  3. 3.

    See for example Schmitt 1999-2000, p. 268; Cohan 2002–2003, p. 487.

  4. 4.

    Low and Hodgkinson 1994–1995, p. 411.

  5. 5.

    DuBarry Huston 2002, p. 909.

  6. 6.

    Jacoby 2000, p. 298.

  7. 7.

    Schwabach 2000, p. 120.

  8. 8.

    Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v Uganda), Judgment, ICJ Reports 2005, p. 168. This case is discussed in greater detail below.

  9. 9.

    Glassborow 2007.

  10. 10.

    Bloomfield and Butler 2008.

  11. 11.

    Stewart 2007; Takshe 2010; Tranquillo 2007.

  12. 12.

    Hulme 2004, p. 205.

  13. 13.

    The Independent 2010.

  14. 14.

    Von Mittelstaedt 2010.

  15. 15.

    De Jong et al 2007; see also Drumbl 2000.

  16. 16.

    Lawrence and Heller 2007, p. 85; see also Bruch 2000–2001.

  17. 17.

    Austin and Bruch 2003, 165.

  18. 18.

    Austin and Bruch 2003, 164.

  19. 19.

    Austin and Bruch 2003, 166.

  20. 20.

    Weinstein 2004–2005, 700.

  21. 21.

    Lawrence and Heller 2007, 85.

  22. 22.

    Drumbl 2000, 644.

  23. 23.

    Drumbl 2000, 644.

  24. 24.

    De Jong et al 2007; see also Drumbl 2000, p. 631.

  25. 25.

    Austin and Bruch 2003, pp. 162–163.

  26. 26.

    De Jong et al 2007, p. 1.

  27. 27.

    African Wildlife Foundation 2012.

  28. 28.

    Draulans and Van Krunkelsven 2002, p. 35.

  29. 29.

    Dudley et al 2002.

  30. 30.

    Adam 2006; see also Draulans and Van Krunkelsven 2002, pp. 36–37.

  31. 31.

    See, for example, Humphreys 2005; Lujala 2010; Lujala et al 2005; Ross 2004; Schwartz and Singh 1999; Schwartz et al 2000; Weinstein 2005; Le Billon 2001; Binningsbo et al 2006; Collier and Hoeffler 2005; Percival and Homer-Dixon 1998.

  32. 32.

    De Jong et al 2007, p. 2.

  33. 33.

    Buhaug et al 2009, p. 544.

  34. 34.

    Buhaug et al 2009, p. 555.

  35. 35.

    Buhaug et al 2009, p. 558.

  36. 36.

    At which time prohibitions on environmental damage were included in Additional Protocol I in articles 35(3) and 55. Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 June 1977, 1125 UNTS 3.

  37. 37.

    Article 8(2)(b)(iv), Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, UN Doc. A/CONF. 183/9; 37 ILM 1002 (1998); 2187 UNTS 90.

  38. 38.

    United Nations Environment Programme 2009, p. 10.

  39. 39.

    US War Department, Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field, General Orders No 100 (Apr. 24, 1863).

  40. 40.

    US War Department, Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field, General Orders No 100 (Apr. 24, 1863) Article 16.

  41. 41.

    US War Department, Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field, General Orders No 100 (Apr. 24, 1863) Article 44.

  42. 42.

    Bruch 2000-2001, pp. 695–697.

  43. 43.

    Discussed below in the section on international jurisprudence (Sect. 20.4).

  44. 44.

    See Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field (First Geneva Convention), 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 31; Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea (Second Geneva Convention), 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 85; Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War (Third Geneva Convention), 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 135; Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (Fourth Geneva Convention), 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 287.

  45. 45.

    See, for example, Hulme 1997, p. 45; Schmitt 2000, pp. 87–88.

  46. 46.

    United Nations Environment Programme 2009, p. 10.

  47. 47.

    Additional Protocol I Article 35(3).

  48. 48.

    Additional Protocol I Article 55.

  49. 49.

    Schmitt 2011.

  50. 50.

    Additional Protocol I Article 35(3).

  51. 51.

    Additional Protocol I Article 35(3).

  52. 52.

    Additional Protocol I Article 55.

  53. 53.

    Hulme 2004.

  54. 54.

    Meron 1996, p. 356.

  55. 55.

    Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques, 10 December 1976, 1108 UNTS 151.

  56. 56.

    Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques, 10 December 1976, 1108 UNTS 151 Article 1.

  57. 57.

    Koppe 2008, 263.

  58. 58.

    Hulme 2007, p. 235.

  59. 59.

    Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, UN Doc. A/CONF. 183/9; 37 ILM 1002 (1998); 2187 UNTS 90.

  60. 60.

    Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, UN Doc. A/CONF. 183/9; 37 ILM 1002 (1998); 2187 UNTS 90 Article 8(2)(b)(iv).

  61. 61.

    United Nations Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, Rome 15 June-17 July 1998, A/CONF.183/13 (Vol. III), Official Records Vol III–Reports and Other Documents, 20.

  62. 62.

    Common Article 3 refers to Article 3 which is common to all four of the 1949 Geneva Conventions. See Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field (First Geneva Convention), 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 31, Article 3; Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea (Second Geneva Convention), 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 85, Article 3; Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War (Third Geneva Convention), 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 135, Article 3; Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (Fourth Geneva Convention), 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 287, Article 3.

  63. 63.

    See for example Elder 1979; Lysaght 1983–1984; Pejic 2011.

  64. 64.

    See for example Lopez 2006-2007, p. 240.

  65. 65.

    Cullen 2010, p. 59.

  66. 66.

    Bruch 2000-2001, p. 709–710.

  67. 67.

    As the drafters of the Commentary to the Additional Protocols maintain in 1987, ‘Respect for the environment, even in peacetime, has only recently become a matter of concern’—Sandoz et al 1987, p. 662.

  68. 68.

    Common Article 3(1)(a).

  69. 69.

    Common Article 3(1)(a).

  70. 70.

    Common Article 3(1)(c).

  71. 71.

    Common Article 3(1)(c).

  72. 72.

    Report of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, 'Minimum Humanitarian Standards', Analytical report of the Secretary-General submitted pursuant to Commission on Human Rights resolution 1997/21, UN Doc E/CN.4/1998/87 5 January 1998, para. 77.

  73. 73.

    Report of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, 'Minimum Humanitarian Standards', Analytical report of the Secretary-General submitted pursuant to Commission on Human Rights resolution 1997/21, UN Doc E/CN.4/1998/87 5 January 1998 para. 77.

  74. 74.

    Meron 1996, p. 357.

  75. 75.

    United Nations Environment Programme 2009, p. 16.

  76. 76.

    Additional Protocol II, Article 4(2)(g).

  77. 77.

    Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v Uganda) Judgment, ICJ Reports 2005 168. Discussed in detail below in the section on relevant international jurisprudence (Sect. 20.4).

  78. 78.

    Lundberg 2007-2008, p. 502.

  79. 79.

    Dam-de Jong 2009.

  80. 80.

    Dam-de Jong 2009.

  81. 81.

    Van den Herik and Dam-de Jong 2011, p. 273.

  82. 82.

    Additional Protocol II, Article 15.

  83. 83.

    Bruch and Austin 2000.

  84. 84.

    Takshe et al 2010.

  85. 85.

    United Nations Environment Programme 2009, p. 18.

  86. 86.

    See generally Keane 2004.

  87. 87.

    United Nations Environment Programme 2009, p. 18.

  88. 88.

    United Nations Environment Programme 2009, p. 51.

  89. 89.

    Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, 1037 UNTS 151; 27 UST 37; 11 ILM 1358 (1972).

  90. 90.

    ‘UNESCO World Heritage List’ <http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/> accessed 3 January 2013.

  91. 91.

    ‘UNESCO List of World Heritage in Danger’ <http://whc.unesco.org/en/danger> accessed 3 January 2013.

  92. 92.

    Hague Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land. The Hague, 18 October 1907.

  93. 93.

    Wilhelm List and Others (The Hostages Trial) (1949) Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals Selected and Prepared by the United Nations War Crimes Committee Vol VIII 34, 45.

  94. 94.

    Wilhelm List and Others (The Hostages Trial) (1949) Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals Selected and Prepared by the United Nations War Crimes Committee Vol VIII 34 69.

  95. 95.

    Wilhelm List and Others (The Hostages Trial) (1949) Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals Selected and Prepared by the United Nations War Crimes Committee Vol VIII 34 67–69.

  96. 96.

    Wilhelm List and Others (The Hostages Trial) (1949) Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals Selected and Prepared by the United Nations War Crimes Committee Vol VIII 34 76.

  97. 97.

    Trial of Alfred Jodl (1948) Trial of the Major War Criminals before The International Military Tribunal “Blue Series” Vol XXII, 463.

  98. 98.

    Trial of Alfred Jodl (1948) Trial of the Major War Criminals before The International Military Tribunal “Blue Series” Vol XXII, 571.

  99. 99.

    Trial of Alfred Jodl (1948) Trial of the Major War Criminals before The International Military Tribunal “Blue Series” Vol XXII 570–571.

  100. 100.

    Weinstein 2004-2005, p. 704.

  101. 101.

    Weinstein 2004-2005, p. 704.

  102. 102.

    Okawa 2006, p. 743.

  103. 103.

    Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v Uganda) para. 245.

  104. 104.

    Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, ICJ Reports 1996 p 226, para. 30 at p. 242.

  105. 105.

    Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v Uganda) para. 242.

  106. 106.

    Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v Uganda) para. 246.

  107. 107.

    Arguments of Professor Sands in Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (DRC v Uganda), CR 2005/9 , 18 para. 8.

  108. 108.

    Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v Uganda) para. 248.

  109. 109.

    Okowa 2006, p. 752.

  110. 110.

    Okowa 2006, p. 752.

  111. 111.

    Formally created by S.C. Res. 692, UN SCOR, 46th Sess., 2987th mtg., para. 3, U.N. Doc. S/RES/692 (1991).

  112. 112.

    Klee 2005, p. 598.

  113. 113.

    S.C. Res. 687, UN SCOR, 46th Sess., 2981st mtg., para. 16, U.N. Doc. S/RES/687 (1991).

  114. 114.

    Pursuant to Article 39 which ‘grants the Security Council the power to decide what measures to take pursuant to Articles 41 (sanctions) and Article 42 (use of force) “to maintain or restore international peace and security”—Libera 2001, p. 294.

  115. 115.

    Low and Hodgkinson 1994–1995, p. 412.

  116. 116.

    Klee 2005, p. 600.

  117. 117.

    S.C. Res. 687, UN SCOR, 46th Sess., 2981st mtg., para. 18, U.N. Doc. S/RES/687 (1991).

  118. 118.

    Low and Hodgkinson 1994–1995, p. 406.

  119. 119.

    Juni 2000, p. 66.

  120. 120.

    Juni 2000, p. 66.

  121. 121.

    Decision taken by the Governing Council of the United Nations Compensation Commission, S/AC.26/1991/7/Rev.1, 17 March 1992–Criteria for Expedited Processing of Urgent Claims, para. 35.

  122. 122.

    All monetary statistics are taken from regular updates posted on the United Nations Compensation Commission website: < https://uncc.ch/home> accessed 26 September 2018.

  123. 123.

    Report Submitted by the ICRC at the 48th Session of the United Nations General Assembly on the Protection of the Environment in Time of Armed Conflict, 29 July 1993 <http://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/misc/5deesv.htm> accessed 2 January 2013, Annex.

  124. 124.

    Bothe et al 2010, p. 573 footnotes omitted.

  125. 125.

    International Law Commission, ‘Protection of the Environment in Relation to Armed Conflict’ <http://legal.un.org/ilc/guide/8_7.shtml> accessed 30 August 2018.

  126. 126.

    International Law Commission 2014.

  127. 127.

    International Law Commission 2015.

  128. 128.

    International Law Commission 2016.

  129. 129.

    Office of the Prosecutor at the International Criminal Court 2016, paras. 7, 40, 41.

References

  • Adam D (2006) Wildlife Expert Persuades Notorious Rebel Army to Join Fight to Save Rare White Rhino. The Guardian (London, 13 September 2006) <http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2006/sep/13/conservationandendangeredspecies.internationalnews> accessed 30 December 2012

  • African Wildlife Foundation (2012) Continued Fighting Threatens Mountain Gorillas, Staff of Virunga National Park, <http://www.awf.org/content/headline/detail/4611> accessed 30 December 2012

  • Austin JE, Bruch CE (2003) Legal Mechanisms for Addressing Wartime Damage to Tropical Forests. 16 Journal of Sustainable Forestry 161

    Google Scholar 

  • Binningsbo HM, de Soysa I, Gleditsch NP (2006) Green Giant or Straw Man? Environmental Pressure and Civil Conflict, 1961-99. (47th Annual Convention of the International Studies Association, San Diego, California, 22-25 March 2006)

    Google Scholar 

  • Bloomfield S, Butler K (2008) 'Scorched Earth' Unleashed on Darfur, Despite UN Presence, Irish Independent (Dublin, 12 March 2008) <http://www.independent.ie/world-news/africa/scorched-earth-unleashed-on-darfur-despite-un-presence-1314715.html> accessed 29 December 2012

  • Bothe M et al (2010) International Law Protecting the Environment During Armed Conflict: Gaps and Opportunities. 92 International Review of the Red Cross 569

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruch CE (2000-2001) All's Not Fair in (Civil) War: Criminal Liability for Environmental Damage in Internal Armed Conflict. 25 Vermont Law Review 695

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruch CE, Austin JE (2000) The 1999 Kosovo Conflict: Unresolved Issues in Addressing the Environmental Consequences of War. 30 Environmental Law Reporter 10069

    Google Scholar 

  • Buhaug H, Gates S, Lujala P (2009) Geography, Rebel Capability, and the Duration of Civil Conflict. 53 Journal of Conflict Resolution 544

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohan JA (2002–2003) Modes of Warfare and Evolving Standards of Environmental Protection Under the International Law of War. 15 Florida Journal of International Law 481

    Google Scholar 

  • Collier P, Hoeffler A (2005) Resource Rents, Governance and Conflict. 49 Journal of Conflict Resolution 625

    Google Scholar 

  • Cullen A (2010) The Concept of Non-International Armed Conflict in International Humanitarian Law. Cambridge University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Dam-de Jong D (2009) International Law and Resource Plunder: The Protection of Natural Resources during Armed Conflict. 19(1) Yearbook of International Environmental Law 27

    Google Scholar 

  • De Jong W, Donovan D, Abe K (eds) (2007) Extreme Conflict and Tropical Forests. Springer

    Google Scholar 

  • Draulans D, Van Krunkelsven E (2002) The Impact of War on Forest Areas in the Democratic Republic of Congo. 36 Oryx 35

    Google Scholar 

  • Drumbl MA (2000) Waging War Against the World: The Need to Move from War Crimes to Environmental Crimes. In: Austin JE, Bruch CE (eds) The Environmental Consequences of War: Legal, Economic, and Scientific Perspectives. Cambridge University Press, 631

    Google Scholar 

  • DuBarry Huston M (2002) Wartime Environmental Damages: Financing the Clean-up. 23 University of Pennsylvania. Journal of International Economic Law 899

    Google Scholar 

  • Dudley JP et al (2002) Effects of War and Civil Strife on Wildlife and Wildlife Habitats. 16 Conservation Biology 319

    Google Scholar 

  • Elder DA (1979) The Historical Background of Common Article 3 of the Geneva Convention of 1949. 11 Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law 37

    Google Scholar 

  • Glassborow K (2007) International Court Urged to Consider Environmental Crimes in Darfur, Environment News Service (The Hague, 30 August 2007) <http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/aug2007/2007-08-30-02.asp> accessed 29 December 2012

  • Hulme K (1997) Armed Conflict, Wanton Ecological Devastation and Scorched Earth Policies: How the 1990-91 Gulf Conflict Revealed the Inadequacies of the Current Laws to Ensure Effective Protection and Preservation of the Natural Environment. 2 Journal of Armed Conflict Law 45

    Google Scholar 

  • Hulme K (2004) War Torn Environment: Interpreting the Legal Threshold. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers

    Google Scholar 

  • Hulme K (2007) Natural Environment. In: Wilmshurst E, Breau S (eds) Perspectives on the ICRC Study on Customary International Humanitarian Law. Cambridge University Press, 235

    Google Scholar 

  • Humphreys M (2005) Natural Resources, Conflict and Conflict Resolution. (2005) 49 Journal of Conflict Resolution 508

    Google Scholar 

  • International Law Commission (2014) Preliminary Report on the Protection of the Environment in relation to Armed Conflicts, A/CN.4/674 <http://legal.un.org/docs/?symbol=A/CN.4/674> accessed 26 September 2018

  • International Law Commission (2015) Second Report on the Protection of the Environment in Relation to Armed Conflicts, Sixty-Seventh Session, A/CN.4/685, <http://legal.un.org/docs/?symbol=A/CN.4/685> accessed 26 September 2018

  • International Law Commission (2016) Third Report on the Protection of the Environment in Relation to Armed Conflicts, Sixty-Eighth Session A/CN.4/700, <http://legal.un.org/docs/?symbol=A/CN.4/700> accessed 26 September 2018

  • Jacoby JD (2000) Ecological and Natural Resource Impacts: Introduction. In: Austin JE, Bruch CE (eds) The Environmental Consequences of War: Legal, Economic and Scientific Perspectives. Cambridge University Press, 298

    Google Scholar 

  • Juni RL (2000) The United Nations Compensation Commission as a Model for an International Environmental Court. 7 Environmental Law 53

    Google Scholar 

  • Keane D (2004) The Failure to Protect Cultural Property in Wartime. 14 DePaul-LCA Journal of Art and Entertainment Law 1

    Google Scholar 

  • Klee J (2005) Symposium: The International Responses to the Environmental Impacts of War - Morning Panel: Response, Assessment and Remediation of Environmental Damages. 17 Georgetown International Environmental Law Review 565

    Google Scholar 

  • Koppe E (2008) The Use of Nuclear Weapons and the Protection of the Environment during International Armed Conflict, vol 18. Hart Publishing

    Google Scholar 

  • Lawrence JC, Heller KJ (2007) The First Ecocentric Environmental War Crime: The Limits of Article 8(2)(b)(iv) of the Rome Statute. 20 Georgetown International Environmental Law Review 61

    Google Scholar 

  • Le Billon P (2001) The Political Ecology of War: Natural Resources and Armed Conflicts. 20 Political Geography 561

    Google Scholar 

  • Libera RE (2001) Divide, Conquer and Pay: Civil Compensation for Wartime Damages. 24 Boston College International & Comparative Law Review, 291

    Google Scholar 

  • Lopez A (2006–2007) Criminal Liability for Environmental Damage Occurring in Times of Non-International Armed Conflict: Rights and Remedies. (2006–2007) 18 Fordham Environmental Law Review 231

    Google Scholar 

  • Low L, Hodgkinson D (1994-1995) Compensation for Wartime Environmental Damage: Challenges to International Law After the Gulf War. 35 Vanderbilt Journal of International Law 405

    Google Scholar 

  • Lujala P (2010) The Spoils of Nature: Armed Civil Conflict and Rebel Access to Natural Resources. 47 Journal of Peace Research 15

    Google Scholar 

  • Lujala P, Gleditsc NP, Gilmore E (2005) A Diamond Curse? Civil War and a Lootable Resource. 49 Journal of Conflict Resolution 538

    Google Scholar 

  • Lundberg MA (2007–2008) The Plunder of Natural Resources During War: A War Crime (?). 39 Georgetown Journal of International Law 495

    Google Scholar 

  • Lysaght C (1983–1984) The Scope of Protocol II and its Relation to Common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and Other Human Rights Instruments. 33 American University Law Review 9

    Google Scholar 

  • Meron T (1996) Chapter XX - Comment: Protection of the Environment During Non-International Armed Conflicts. In: Grunawalt RJ, King JE, McClain RS (eds) Protection of the Environment During Armed Conflict and Other Military Operations. Naval War College, 356

    Google Scholar 

  • Office of the Prosecutor at the International Criminal Court (2016) Policy Paper on Case Selection and Prioritisation, 15 September 2016, < https://www.icc-cpi.int/itemsDocuments/20160915_OTP-Policy_Case-Selection_Eng.pdf> accessed 26 September 2018

  • Okawa PN (2006) Case Concerning Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v Uganda). 55 International & Comparative Law Quarterly 742, 743

    Google Scholar 

  • Pejic J (2011) The Protective Scope of Common Article 3: More than Meets the Eye. (2011) 93 International Review of the Red Cross 189

    Google Scholar 

  • Percival V, Homer-Dixon TF (1998) Environmental Scarcity and Violent Conflict: The Case of South Africa. 35 Journal of Peace Research 279

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross MA (1992) Environmental Warfare and the Persian Gulf War: Possible Remedies to Combat Intentional Destruction of the Environment. 10 Dickinson Journal of International Law 515

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross ML (2004) How Do Natural Resources Influence Civil War? Evidence from Thirteen Cases. (2004) 58 International Organization 35

    Google Scholar 

  • Sandoz Y, Swinarski C, Zimmermann B (1987) Commentary on the Additional Protocols of 8 June 1977 to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmitt M (2011) Keynote address: Armed Conflict, the Environment and International Law – Concern for Future Generations during Armed Conflict? Conference on the Protection of the Environment in Armed Conflict, TMC Asser Instituut, The Hague, 7 November 2011

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmitt MN (1999-2000) Humanitarian Law and the Environment. 28 Denver Journal of International Law and Policy 265

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmitt MN (2000) War and the Environment: Fault Lines in the Prescriptive Landscape. In: Austin JE, Bruch CE (eds) The Environmental Consequences of War: Legal, Scientific and Economic Perspectives. Cambridge University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwabach A (2000) Environmental Damage Resulting from the NATO Military Action Against Yugoslavia. 25 Columbia Journal of Environmental Law, 117

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz D, Singh A (1999) Environmental Conditions, Resources, and Conflicts: An Introductory Overview and Data Collection. United Nations Environment Programme, Division of Environmental Information, Assessment & Early Warning

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz DM, Deligiannis T, Homer-Dixon TF (2000) The Environment and Violent Conflict: A Response to Gleditsch's Critique and Some Suggestions for Future Research. (2000) Environmental Change & Security Project Report 77

    Google Scholar 

  • Stewart JG (2007) The UN Commission of Inquiry on Lebanon: A Legal Appraisal. 5 Journal of International Criminal Justice 1039

    Google Scholar 

  • Takshe AA et al (2010) Dealing with Pollution from Conflict: Analysis of Discourses Around the 2006 Lebanon Oil Spill. 91 Journal of Environmental Management 887

    Google Scholar 

  • The Independent (2010) Charity reveals 'scorched earth' Yemen images, The Independent (London, 7 April 2010) <http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/charity-reveals-scorched-earth-yemen-images-1938207.html> accessed 30 December 2012

  • Tranquillo N (2007) Green Casualties of War: The Need for International Protection of the Environment During Armed Conflicts and the Case of the War between Israel and Lebanon in 2006. Lund University

    Google Scholar 

  • United Nations Environment Programme (2009) Protecting the Environment During Armed Conflict: An Inventory and Analysis of International Law. UNEP Post-Conflict and Disaster Management Branch

    Google Scholar 

  • Van den Herik L, Dam-de Jong D (2011) Revitalising the Antique War Crime of Pillage: The Potential and Pitfalls of Using International Criminal Law to Address Illegal Resource Exploitation During Armed Conflict. 22 Criminal Law Forum 237

    Google Scholar 

  • Von Mittelstaedt J (2010) A US Hand in Yemen's Civil War. Der Spiegel (12 March 2010) <http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/operation-scorched-earth-a-us-hand-in-yemen-s-civil-war-a-732734.html> accessed 30 December 2012

  • Weinstein JM (2005) Resources and the Information Problem in Rebel Recruitment. 49 Journal of Conflict Resolution 598

    Google Scholar 

  • Weinstein T (2004–2005) Prosecuting Attacks that Destroy the Environment: Environmental Crimes or Humanitarian Atrocities? 17 Georgetown International Environmental Law Review 697

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Law, Bangor University, Wales, UK

    Tara Smith

Authors
  1. Tara Smith
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Tara Smith .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. School of Law, KIMEP University, Almaty, Kazakhstan

    Sergey Sayapin

  2. School of Law, KIMEP University, Almaty, Kazakhstan

    Rustam Atadjanov

  3. National Law School of India, Pune, India

    Umesh Kadam

  4. Law and Social Sciences, University of Derby, Derby, UK

    Gerhard Kemp

  5. School of Law, KIMEP University, Almaty, Kazakhstan

    Nicolás Zambrana-Tévar

  6. Bristol Law School, University of the West of England, Bristol, UK

    Noëlle Quénivet

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2022 T.M.C. Asser Press and the authors

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Smith, T. (2022). The Protection of the Environment and Natural Resources in Armed Conflict. In: Sayapin, S., Atadjanov, R., Kadam, U., Kemp, G., Zambrana-Tévar, N., Quénivet, N. (eds) International Conflict and Security Law. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-515-7_20

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-515-7_20

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague

  • Print ISBN: 978-94-6265-514-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-94-6265-515-7

  • eBook Packages: Law and CriminologyLaw and Criminology (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation