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1 Introduction

Learning is a continuous and lifelong process, which occurs in diverse situations and conditions. These learning processes and practices have always fascinated educators and researchers alike – from acquisition through modification and application of one’s acquired knowledge and skills (see, e.g., Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). Given the diverse perspectives that explain this phenomenon throughout human history, learning is evidently well discussed and researched (e.g., Price, 2014; Richardson, 2000). Aside from merely understanding learning per se, continuous efforts are exerted to examine and develop appropriate measures or strategies to support the learning processes that can improve the learning outcome or the performance of learners in various contexts, including adult learning (e.g., Denton, 2012; Gagné, Wager, Golas, & Keller, 2005; Maher & Gerbic, 2009; Price, 2014; Richardson, 2000).

Particularly, efforts are focused on formal or informal learning, that is, in the context of learning that prepares individuals for a particular profession that fosters learning while one practices his/her profession within or outside the workplace setting (e.g., Firssova, 2006; Herman & Kirkup, 2008). Formal learning or training, specifically within a university context, typically takes three to four years (depending on which degree is being pursued and in which country one is studying) to learn theories and to develop the competences required to practice one’s future profession. However, honing specific competences required for a chosen profession typically occurs in a limited period of few months of internship or few years of apprenticeship (depending on the field of study and the curriculum of an educational institution). Hence, further learning opportunities are needed to compensate for the short period of formal preparation for a chosen profession as well as to foster continuous development of professional competences. Further learning opportunities can be within or outside the workplace setting in the form of either training or workshops or informal learning activities in the workplace. However, there are many factors or conditions that could either hinder or aid the development of competences in the workplace. Harteis (2002) argues that there are favorable workplace conditions that support competency development. Findings showed, based on a Delphi study, that working on projects and diverse tasks as well as taking certain responsibilities on tasks including decision making in the organization are among the favorable conditions that support competency development in the workplace (Harteis, 2002; see also Harteis & Gruber, 2004).

Accordingly, the essence of learning is a continuous and lifelong process. Many professionals are actively learning or developing their competences while practicing their profession. This we refer to as professional learning and development. Continuous efforts are thus needed, which are directed towards the development of appropriate measures in learning settings (such as the workplace) in order to foster and support professional learning and the development of competences among adult learners. Indeed, there are various strategies or approaches that are already practiced in different professional contexts to foster professional learning and professional growth. These practices are classified as traditional and contemporary practices. Traditional practices pertain to long-standing strategies in professional learning and development that utilize a didactic approach. Comparatively, contemporary practices describe the use of strategies that are developed as a consequence of the present social and technological conditions, particularly in relation to the use of technological innovations to support learning. Webster-Wright (2010) stresses that the differences between traditional professional development strategies and contemporary practices are in the aspiration to convey authentic meaning and experience as the essence of professional learning. She argues that traditional professional development strategies are characterized by their focus on simple delivery of content or information. She used the term innovative strategies to describe contemporary practices that are characterized as transformational as they emphasize the development of the individual professional through collaborative approaches like mentoring.

In this chapter, we support the emerging practices of self-directed, reflective, and collaborative professional learning in both formal and informal contexts. We also uphold the principles and strategies that are utilized in traditional formal training practices, which take into account the individual learners – their needs, individual differences, and other learning conditions. Whether it is in formal or in informal learning context, it is necessary to consider the conditions of learning as essential factors for effective learning. These learning conditions are classified as internal and external factors: the internal factors include motivation and prior knowledge and skills, and the external factors include learning environment, learning contents, and materials (Gagné & Briggs, 1974; see also Gagné, 1977; Gagné et al., 2005). In the context of professional learning, it is important to consider that adult learners are diverse in many aspects. Among these aspects are levels of knowledge and skills, interests, specific skills, or competences that need improvement, pace in learning, learning opportunities in the workplace, and the time the learners are willing or able to invest to engage in professional learning.

Thus, as professional development becomes more valued in organizations or in society at large, it is not only appropriate that an organization finds ways to manage knowledge but to support the employees in developing their skills to continuously hone their competences needed for their professional growth. By carefully considering professional growth in various professional contexts, there is a need to consider measures that are appropriate not only for the formal learning settings (like company-offered trainings or workshops) but for the informal learning settings as well. Since learners in this learning context are adults or professionals who can take responsibility for their own learning, this condition opens up more possibilities to support and sustain professional learning and professional development. In this sense, we agree with the idea that “professional learning is essentially a self-directed activity” [italics added] (Webster-Wright, 2010, p. 11).

Moreover, given that the time needed and available time to engage in learning are among the necessary factors for professional learning, appropriate measures should therefore support adult learners to “take control of their own learning.” It is important that “[learners] must learn to recognize when they understand and when they need more information” (Bransford et al., 2000, p. 12). In other words, each individual learner should decide where and when to learn, what information is important or what skills are needed, and how he or she can best engage in professional learning. In addition, the learner should also decide whether or not to learn individually or in a group with colleagues or peers. However, self-regulation of professional learning activities also demands an appropriate measure – that is, a measure that demands careful consideration of the design of a professional development plan and the use of a tool to support and to sustain effective and continuous professional learning. Hence, later in this chapter, we utilize the strategies of instructional design to propose a specific approach to designing professional learning and development plans, which gives particular emphasis on self-regulation of learning and the use of an electronic portfolio (e-portfolio). The proposed approach and the use of an e-portfolio support the main aim of the chapter, that is, to foster and sustain continuous self-directed and reflective professional learning.

To summarize, this chapter discusses the role of an e-portfolio in professional learning and development. We begin by discussing the role of technological innovations, which paves the way for new practices in developing portfolios (i.e., the use of e-portfolios). We also provide a better understanding of the concept of a portfolio by discussing its meaning, purpose, and uses in different contexts. This is followed by a comprehensive discussion about the use of electronic portfolios in light of recent research, which provides an overview of the advantages and disadvantages of using e-portfolios. At the end of the chapter, we discuss an approach to designing professional learning and development plans, which serves as a guide for individuals who are interested in taking control of their own professional learning and development.

2 Information and Communication Technology in the Context of Professional Practice and Professional Learning

This section discusses the role of information and communication technologies in supporting learning processes and professional practices at large via the use of learning management systems or knowledge management tools. It provides a few examples of technological artifacts and specific tools that play a vital role in supporting knowledge management and e-learning activities. In addition, it emphasizes the necessity of utilizing technological innovations that support new practices in professional learning. In particular, this section argues that, if the main aim is to foster self-directed and reflective professional learning, learners should take full advantage of the use of electronic portfolios. This aim can be fulfilled by utilizing already existing knowledge management systems that serve the purpose of using e-portfolios in professional learning and development or by developing new learning platforms that is specifically designed for professional learning and development purposes.

Indeed, technological innovations and the widespread use of technologies continue to play an important role in various aspects of the society, which include supporting knowledge management activities and learning processes. Searching or acquiring new information is relatively easy in this digital age as are the technologies available to us to support our learning processes and activities (Price & Kirkwood, 2008). The widespread use of technological devices, such as laptops and smartphones in combination with the web-based tools or applications, such as knowledge management (KM) tools and learning management systems (LMS) in organizational and educational contexts, respectively, stresses the vital role of technologies in the society (see, e.g., Alexander, 2006; Ertl, 2010). Considering the educational context, technology’s influence is evident in the context of teaching and learning in higher education via the use of technological artifacts. Price and Kirkwood (2014) enlisted specific examples of these artifacts as follows:

blended learning/e-learning/hybrid courses

audio/podcasts

video resources/lectures/games

multimedia tools

virtual laboratories/fieldwork

blogs

collaborative tools/wikis

online discussion boards/conferences/forums

e-Portfolios

online course resources

electronic voting/personal response systems, and

assistive technologies (p. 553).

This illustrates the penetration of technology in higher education in a range of contexts and how a variety of technologies have been used to support learners in a variety of ways.

The findings of a recent survey conducted by Daunert and Harteis (2014) among preservice teachers, who were asked to report on their daily activities using different technologies, showed that ubiquitous social technologies were also useful for academic activities. For example, a social networking tool may also be used as a tool for communication and collaboration among students for academic purposes (Daunert & Harteis, 2014). Also, e-learning platforms are utilized to showcase learners’ portfolios in higher education context (see, e.g., the e-portfolios developed by the students of the University of Michigan). Thus, technological innovations specifically LMS and KM tools support learners, i.e., to have easier access to learning materials anytime and anywhere, to organize and manage knowledge, and to collaborate with other learners. The use of such tools offers advantages for different types of learners in that learning materials can be stored and organized for future use or they can be shared with others. Hence, technology offers learners diverse opportunities to support learning.

There are volumes of literature and studies that discuss the use of LMS or e-learning that specifically focus on the learning practices of students in schools or in universities (e.g., Naidu, 2003; see also Daunert & Harteis, 2014; Greenhow, Robelia, & Hughes, 2009; Hiltz & Goldman, 2005). However, there is limited literature or empirical studies about the learning practices of adult learners in different professions who use such tools for professional learning and development. Hence, empirical studies that explore the use of appropriate technologies to support and foster professional learning and development are needed. However, it could be argued that the role of technology in the context of professional practice is already apparent through the use of KM tools in companies or businesses. The development and use of KM tools in organizations started to surface in the 1990s. But according to Easterby-Smith and Lyles (2005), the development of knowledge management has been “rapid and chaotic.” In addition, most of the efforts to develop KM tools that are utilized by organizations aim at running the business efficiently and, hence, not primarily to support professional learning. An example of this is the Business Suite software used for customer relationship management by SAP Corporation, (i.e., Applications and Products in Data Processing Corporation) which is a multinational software corporation founded in the 1970s.

Daft (2001) illustrates the evolution of organizational applications of information technology in organizations. He provides an overview of the use of information technology systems and applications from the operational level up to the management level. This emphasizes the use of technological systems or applications that aim for efficiency in the daily activities of employees, such as in organizing, sharing, and using information. These organizational applications have evolved from operational, programmed systems into strategic, non-programmed systems:

  1. 1.

    Operations

    1. (a)

       Transaction processing systems

    2. (b)

       Data warehousing

    3. (c)

       Data mining software

  2. 2.

    Business resource

    1. (a)

       Management information systems

    2. (b)

       Decision support systems

    3. (c)

       Executive information systems

  3. 3.

    Strategic weapon (as the highest level of application)

    1. (a)

       Internal: networking, intranets, and enterprise resource planning

    2. (b)

       External: extranets, e-commerce, and network structure (Daft, 2001, p. 241)

Thus, the emergence of the concept of learning organizations and organizational learning has made it possible for the development of tools that are useful for new knowledge management activities. For example, these can be used to manage or keep a record of the most important information in the organization and, in some cases, to provide a platform for employees to collaborate on a company project. Some examples of these KM tools that are widely used by organizations are: IT solutions like groupware and Information Management System (IMS), which often include decision support system. An IT solution like groupware, in particular, is a platform that facilitates group work such as e-mail, calendar, and global directory (e.g., Hüttenegger, 2006). Other examples of KM tools used by small to medium companies are Atlassian Software Systems, Brainstorm Software Ltd., and Interspire Knowledge Manager, among others. More examples of KM solutions or software can be found using a KM software finder like www.capterra.com or http://botw.org/top/Computers/Software/.

In specific contexts, like collaborative activities or project management, employees can possibly utilize these KM tools for learning purposes. For instance, individuals can use Confluence, which is specifically a tool for teams to collaborate on a project and to share files and notes, etc. (see https://www.atlassian.com/software). However, in the professional context in which technology can play a vital role to support deliberately designed as well as self-directed and reflective professional learning, beyond merely documenting and managing knowledge – an appropriate tool to support the realization of this goal is needed. Hence, we propose the use of an e-portfolio as a tool to support professional learning and development because it is regarded as useful in supporting learning and development of skills (see, e.g., Denton, 2012; Ehiyazaryan-White, 2012; and Jenson, 2011). Empirical studies showed that e-portfolios can support professional learning and consequently the professional growth of learners (Bala, Adlina, Mansor, Stapa, & Zakaria, 2012; see also Brown, 2011; Duncan-Pitt & Sutherland, 2006; Johnsen, 2012; and Malita, 2009, among others) in that it can offer learners the opportunity to organize documentation of the learning processes, keep track of an individual’s learning, and thus provide the opportunity to direct and manage their own learning. It also has the potential to support learners share works and learning experiences with others because technology enables ubiquitous access to one’s own and other’s learning artifacts.

3 E-Portfolio in Professional Learning and Development

In this section, we discuss the role of an e-portfolio as well as the advantages and disadvantages within the context of the learning and development of skills and competences in the light of the most recent literature and studies on the use of e-portfolios. First, we provide a short overview of the meaning of the word portfolio, the different definitions provided by different authors, and the working definition of e-portfolio. This is followed by a discussion on the role of e-portfolios in professional learning and an overview of the advantages and disadvantages in using them in professional learning. At the end of the chapter, we propose an approach to designing a professional learning and development plan with the use of an e-portfolio based on the ADDIE model of instructional design. The abbreviation stands for Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate. This is the most basic model of Instructional Systems Design (ISD) process, which includes five phases that are represented by the initial letters of each phase (e.g., Gagné et al., 2005).

Our main goal is to foster a professional learning approach that can be utilized by individuals to plan and direct their own learning and subsequently to utilize it for collaborative learning. The proposed approach supports deliberate planning of professional learning in that adult learners practice self-directed professional learning, which is personally and professionally meaningful to them. That is, each learner takes control of his or her own learning – i.e., from the phase of analyzing learning needs through the phase of evaluating the learning outcome and/or professional growth. Such an approach to designing professional learning processes should take full advantage of technological innovations (i.e., the use of e-portfolios) that are capable of supporting individual as well as group learning. Hence, it is important to discuss the concept of an e-portfolio and its role as a tool to support learning processes, which can cater to the specific needs of individual and group learners.

3.1 What Is an E-Portfolio?

Before examining the role of e-portfolios, we need to first discuss the role of portfolios more generally. There are different points of view on how a portfolio or an e-portfolio is defined. The explanation can be drawn from its meaning and the transition of the practices among various portfolio users and developers throughout time and in different contexts. In order to provide a clearer understanding of the concept of a portfolio or an e-portfolio, we need to consider the transition of the use of portfolios from the paper format into the electronic format as well as the different practices of portfolio developers in various contexts.

Portfolio can be defined as:

“a large, thin, flat case for loose sheets of paper such as drawings or maps”

“a set of pieces of creative work intended to demonstrate a person’s ability to a potential employer”

“a varied set of photographs of a model or actor intended to be shown to a potential employer” (The New Oxford American Dictionary, 2010, pp. 1362–1363)

These three definitions have something in common: they refer to a set or a collection of works that demonstrate one’s abilities or skills for a particular purpose. The dictionary definition of portfolio clearly refers to artifacts or products of purposeful or intentional activities. In Lin’s (2008) words, it is “a purposeful collection of examples of learning that provides evidence of someone’s knowledge, skills, and dispositions” (p. 1).

Gibson and Barret (2003) posit that educators have used portfolios for many years long before electronic portfolios were introduced. However, technological innovations paved the way for new models of using and developing portfolios. This, in some situations, has caused confusion about the concept of a portfolio, particularly electronic portfolios. For instance, Duncan-Pitt and Sutherland (2006) point out the confusion in the concept of an e-portfolio because it pertains “equally to the system, the asset repository, the output and sometimes to the process itself” (p. 70). On the other hand, other authors argue that the concept of either a paper-based or an electronic portfolio is basically the same in that the use is similar and that e-portfolio is simply a technology-based portfolio. However, e-portfolios have advantages that hard copy portfolios do not have (Lin, 2008). Specifically, users of e-portfolios can work on their entries as well as access them and other learning artifacts anytime and anywhere.

Similarly, Gibson and Barrett (2003) explain that an e-portfolio is “essentially a new kind of container,” which can be developed either by simply using generic tools or by using tools or systems that make use of databases or servers. Further, the European Institute for E-Learning (EIfEL) defines an e-portfolio as “a personal digital collection of information describing and illustrating a person’s learning, career, experience and achievements.” Since the learner purposefully collects and records his or her knowledge, skills, or own learning, the e-portfolio is privately owned and the developer or user has control over whether or not to share it with others (see European Institute for E-Learning (EIfEL), http://www.eife-l.org/about/europortfolio).

Hence, it can be inferred that the main reasons for having different types or structures of portfolios – and thus differing views on the concept – are the different contexts and purposes of using or developing portfolios. These different contexts and purposes have led to the development of categories or classifications. The adjectives, placed before the word portfolio, are considered as “identifiers.” They are used to refer to the specific categories of portfolio such as course or electronic portfolio (Jafari, 2004; see also Duncan-Pitt & Sutherland, 2006) and others such as career portfolio, teaching portfolio, or professional learning portfolio. In this chapter, we use these identifiers to categorize or classify the types of portfolios. These categories form different conceptions of portfolio and consequently determine the portfolio’s content and structure (e.g., the conception of a professional learning e-portfolio). Hence, a portfolio is formed into a specific structure according to the specific purpose and context in which it is used.

In summary, a portfolio – whether in paper or electronic format– refers to the whole package, which is the set of works, documentations, or artifacts that one has intentionally organized and collected. This is in order to fulfill one or a combination of the following specific objectives or purposes:

  1. (a)

    To document or record learning experiences, reflections, and other learning artifacts

  2. (b)

    To monitor or keep track of learning experiences and progress or professional growth

  3. (c)

    To demonstrate or showcase abilities or skills, experiences, and achievements

  4. (d)

    To share knowledge, ideas, reflections, or learning experiences with others

  5. (e)

    To collaborate with or support other learners with similar interests

  6. (f)

    To assess or evaluate learning processes, specifically the assessment or evaluation of learning progress or achievement by the learners themselves or by others

Through the use of electronic or digital entries like texts, images or graphics, audio or video, and hyperlinks, the concept of electronic portfolio has been developed. This is referred to in this chapter as e-portfolio. An e-portfolio is the tool itself as well as its contents. The tool and the contents are purposefully designed and collected depending on:

  • The purpose or objective of developing or using it, e.g., to collect learning artifacts to showcase or demonstrate one’s abilities or skills

  • The theme that defines the content of the portfolio, i.e., what abilities or skills one wants to showcase, which defines the artifacts or collected works, for example, a set of photographs to showcase the skills of the photographer

In this chapter, we use the concept of professional learning and professional development e-portfolio to encompass a deliberately and purposefully collected and organized set of artifacts or documentations in electronic format that are intended to record and/or demonstrate as well as to monitor one’s professional learning and development. The learning artifacts include a record of an individual’s learning experiences, reflections, learning progress, and/or learning outcomes. In this context, the professional learning and development e-portfolio can be utilized to specifically support an employee or a professional to direct or regulate and continuously monitor his or her own learning in the workplace and throughout his or her professional life. This tool can also be utilized regardless of the learning environment – i.e., in either the formal or informal context.

3.2 The Role of E-Portfolio in Professional Learning and Development: A Practical Tool for Self-Directed, Reflective, and Collaborative Professional Learning

Developing a portfolio, specifically its paper-based format, has already been a common practice in educational contexts (Gibson & Barrett, 2003). However, the use of the electronic format has recently gained the attention of not only educators but of other professions. For instance, Feeney and Pitman (2010) argue that because e-portfolios are useful for recording and facilitating “ongoing continuing professional development, lifelong learning, and performance,” the tool has become of interest to healthcare organizations and professional regulators, too. The increasing interest in the use of e-portfolios in various contexts can be explained by the results of recent empirical studies that examined the advantages of using e-portfolios. These advantages have been based on the reported positive experiences of learners and the positive impact of using e-portfolios on learning and on the development of skills.

In particular, students reported positive experiences in using e-portfolios in monitoring and controlling themselves as well as in communicating with other learners, which they believe also contributed to their learning (Akçil & Arap, 2009). This is supported by Ayres (2012) narrative that the use of e-portfolios is beneficial to the convenor and the students because it supports students to control or direct the accomplishment of their required project and it is a simple and efficient tool for monitoring student progress. Similarly, Chau and Cheng (2010) point out that the use of e-portfolios helps keep a record and keep track of reflections, knowledge, and student experiences over a period of time. Thus, it is a helpful tool in making the learning process and progress visible for the learner and for others (Johnsen, 2012; see also Egan, 2012) by showing or demonstrating skills and accomplishments (Firssova, 2006; OKeeffe, 2012; Parker, Ndoye, & Ritzhaupt, 2012).

Studies on the use and development of e-portfolios also confirm their usefulness as a tool for providing regular feedback to students (Ayres, 2012; Parker et al., 2012). In addition, it is reported as a useful coaching support tool in the workplace because it helps optimize the coaching sessions, specifically by improving the flexibility and efficiency of coaching activities and increasing the involvement of the coach (Firssova, 2006). Duncan-Pitt and Sutherland (2006) also specify the positive impact of the use of e-portfolios on the skills of students, which they described as the development of “a more confident and reflexive group of students.” They conclude that the students who developed e-portfolios are different from those they normally see at earlier stages in their university education. The e-portfolio users understood the value of e-portfolios, which encouraged them to take the initiative in creating and sharing their ideas and experiences with other learners.

Further, reported advantages and positive impact on the use of e-portfolios also include the following:

  1. (a)

    Teacher participants attributed their professional growth to the use of an e-portfolio platform. They specified the positive impact of online forum on their social and linguistic competences and on being able to access other teachers’ materials as well as on the development of their ICT skills (Bala et al., 2012).

  2. (b)

    The use of e-portfolios facilitated strategies for self-improvement and helped improve computer skills. Participants also reported the advantage of having the choice, ownership of artifacts, and completion of self-initiated task (Chau & Cheng, 2010).

  3. (c)

    The use of an e-portfolios has been successful in providing learners a platform or “a space to construct a reflective narrative” of their learning processes. This has also offered learners an opportunity to revisit their entries anytime and to reflect upon them throughout their learning journey (Ehiyazaryan-White, 2012, p. 184).

  4. (d)

    E-portfolios were helpful in supporting learners develop pedagogical and technological skills and abilities such as website development, portfolio preparation, presenting self and content (Genc & Tinmaz, 2010), as well as learning and reviewing technical skills such as modifying webpage or adding hyperlinks (Lin, 2008).

  5. (e)

    E-portfolios were helpful tools for developing metacognitive strategies and providing a “more stress-free learning space” among students (Huang, Yang, Chiang, & Tzeng, 2012).

  6. (f)

    The use of an e-portfolios has helped learners practice and experience “deeper levels of reflection or critical reflection” in writing (OKeeffe, 2012), helped learners develop critical and reflective thinking (Johnsen, 2012), specifically to reflect on their works, strengths, and weaknesses and to revisit their learning experiences and growth (Lin, 2008).

  7. (g)

    E-portfolios provided a space or platform for learners to showcase achievement, creativity, and interests while helping low-motivated and less confident students learn through others’ works as they organize, construct, and reflect on their own learning (Huang et al., 2012; Maher & Gerbic, 2009). In other words, e-portfolios are useful for communication, interaction, or collaboration with peers by sharing ideas or work and feedbacks, which can serve as guide to improving skills and gaining new knowledge (Lin, 2008; Maher & Gerbic, 2009)

Moreover, although there are many claimed advantages in using e-portfolios, there are also challenges encountered by learners, tutors, instructors, or coaches. These challenges, which we consider as disadvantages, can possibly hold back other professionals in using e-portfolios for professional learning. Reported disadvantages or challenges in using e-portfolios include the following:

  1. (a)

    Lack of necessary IT skills among learners can negatively affect their perceptions of using e-portfolios (Akçil & Arap, 2009), which can consequently affect their actual use of the tool. Students reported that developing e-portfolios was challenging because they have to complete the activities and concentrate on developing web design skills simultaneously (Lin, 2008).

  2. (b)

    Unclear purpose of using the portfolio for first-time users can affect student engagement: For instance, findings of a study showed that first-time users of e-portfolios perceived the diary component of an e-portfolio as “an unnecessary technological add-on”, which affected their engagement in personal development planning. However, when supervisors started to provide feedback by using the platform, students’ views became more positive and their engagement in the said activity seemed to improve, too (Ayres, 2012).

  3. (c)

    There are also issues on making use of databases or servers in developing e-portfolios. On the one hand, there are limitations of available functions utilized by university-hosted platforms. These limitations can demotivate students with advance design skills because they limit the application of their technical skills and creativity. On the other hand, students with few or no such skills are even discouraged (Egan, 2012). As Johnsen (2012) argues, the use of old platforms can contribute to technical problems, but at the same time it is difficult for first-time users to complete an e-portfolio. Hence, Huang et al. (2012) suggest that before using e-portfolios, one should make sure that the learners are familiar with e-portfolios and that they should have appropriate technical skills. This can ensure that the lack of appropriate technical skills is not a barrier to appropriately using e-portfolios by the learner.

  4. (d)

    Portfolio construction can be perceived as quite demanding and time consuming (Firssova, 2006; Genc & Tinmaz, 2010; Lin, 2008; OKeeffe, 2012; Parker et al., 2012). It is considered demanding because it “requires high writing and argumentation skills”. However, experiences of workplace coaches illustrate that the use of e-portfolios is helpful in efficiently preparing for coaching sessions (Firssova, 2006).

  5. (e)

    Motivating students to invest time and effort into using or developing e-portfolios could be challenging, specifically in disciplines that are not aware of its benefits and do not have the portfolio culture such as learners from engineering or computer science (Heinrich, Bhattacharya & Rayudu, 2007).

Based on the reported advantages and disadvantages of using e-portfolios, we can infer that the former outweigh the latter. In addition, we can infer that e-portfolios can primarily serve as a practical tool for self-directed, reflective, and collaborative professional learning. To summarize:

  • An e-portfolio serves as a practical tool for self-directed professional learning because, in this context, its development encourages and supports individuals to direct and take control of their own learning (e.g., Ayres, 2012). The use of the tool also considers the fact that each learner experiences learning individually as a result of diverse factors, which include learning habits, time constraints, or interest. It emphasizes the idea of self-initiated tasks or independent learning and ownership of the learning artifacts (Chau & Cheng, 2010). The use or development of an e-portfolio encourages and supports individuals to deliberately organize their own learning and work-related activities that offer learning opportunities and foster professional development or growth. It provides the individual learner a tool to manage knowledge and the learning processes as well as to continuously monitor one’s learning progress and outcome.

  • An e-portfolio serves as a practical tool for reflective professional learning because the use or development of an e-portfolio encourages and supports individuals to reflect on their own learning and their experiences with work-related activities that can offer learning opportunities and professional growth. The essential aim of e-portfolios is to enhance learners’ reflection throughout their learning journey. Hence, it is useful for learners to practice its application early in their career journey as experience of developing reflection and synthesizing learning artifacts and experiences serve as “solid foundations from which they can continue to reflect and build upon as professionals in the workplace” (Pelliccione & Raison, 2009, p. 280).

     In addition, the use of e-portfolios can also be a useful scaffold for reflecting on required competences. Reflective activities are an inherent aspect as well as the heart and blood of portfolio use or development. Hence, reported experiences in e-portfolio development stress the reflective nature of their learning activities, such as reflecting on work, writing feedback, or learning experiences (e.g., Lin, 2008; Parker et al., 2012). However, first-time users need a reflective guide in developing the quality of their entries from merely descriptive and/or less thought entries into more “higher-order responses.” A reflective guide for first-time users can improve the quality of their thoughts and the structure of their written reflections (Pelliccione & Raison, 2009).

  • An e-portfolio serves as a practical tool for collaborative professional learning because it has the potential to support individuals in sharing their learning experiences and accomplishments with others. In addition, e-portfolios can be used as a tool to support learners to obtain feedback on their works from colleagues or from experts with similar interests. At the same time it can be used as a tool to provide colleagues or other learners with helpful feedback on their achievements and their reflections on those achievements. Thus, the main aim of using the tool for collaborative professional learning is to provide an opportunity or a platform for learners who want to engage in interactive and collaborative learning activities, such as sharing ideas or works that will help others (Lin, 2008; see also Huang et al., 2012) or being able to access the works of others in order to improve their own skills and competences (Bala et al., 2012; see also Huang et al., 2012; Lin, 2008).

Based on the reported experiences, e-portfolios foster and support deliberate, self-directed, reflective, and collaborative professional learning. Also, the specific objectives or purposes of the users or developers determine and define the role of e-portfolio in their professional learning. We therefore argue that e-portfolios can foster and sustain continuous professional growth of the individual. The use of e-portfolios stresses the essence of taking control of one’s own professional learning, i.e., primarily by keeping a record and keeping track of own learning, reflections, and professional growth.

In the following section, we propose an approach to designing a professional development plan in accord with the ADDIE model of instructional design. This proposed approach serves as a general guide for deliberately designing a goal-oriented self-directed professional learning and development plan, while specifically developing an e-portfolio for one’s own specific purposes.

4 An Approach to Designing and Implementing Professional Learning (PL) and Professional Development (PD)

This section proposes an approach to supporting learners in the design and implementation and control of their own professional learning and development. This approach serves as a general guide for a goal-oriented design or development of a professional development plan as well as a goal-oriented collection of learning artifacts and reflections via the use of e-portfolios. Hence, it supports self-directed professional learning in that it can guide a learner’s decision to design and implement own professional development plan as well as the development and use of an appropriate technology (such as utilizing an appropriate e-portfolio system) to support the learning processes.

The approach to designing and implementing professional learning and development, which we are proposing in this chapter, is based on the strategies of instructional design. The most well-known model of instructional design is the so-called ADDIE model, which is an abbreviation of each specific phase (Gagné et al., 2005). In this context, we propose the adaptation of the said model in combination with selected steps from the ISD model utilized by Rothwell and Kazanas (2008).

We argue that this approach can serve as a guide for deliberately designing and implementing a goal-oriented professional learning and development plan, which fosters self-directed professional learning and integrates the practical use of e-portfolios supporting lifelong learning. Accordingly, we also argue that a professional development plan (PDP) can also be prepared by learners themselves and not only by the Human Resources and Personnel Development Department of an organization. The idea of utilizing the ADDIE instructional design model for professional learning and development in this context supports the aim of fostering self-directed professional learning. The professional or learner designs and develops his or her own PDP and directs his or her own learning and the development of professional competences, which is the essence of self-directed professional learning. But before we discuss our proposed approach to designing a PDP, it is necessary to provide an overview of the concept of a professional development plan.

4.1 What Is a Professional Development Plan (PDP)?

A PDP is similar to a syllabus used in the educational context in that designing a PDP is basically similar to planning or designing instruction or learning processes. However, they also differ in some aspects, such as the nature of the content, goals, and the skills or competencies required for development. While a professional or an employee in a particular organization can design and develop his or her own PDP, the more widely known practice is the use of PDP that is created or provided by the HRD of the organization or by a trainer. This is typically implemented via a series of organized training sessions or workshops, coaching sessions, or courses. In both conditions (i.e., self-designed and self-directed PDP or predesigned company-supported PDP), a well-designed PDP necessarily involves an analysis of the learner’s needs, an assessment of the learner’s skills and competences, and an evaluation of these within the context of the organization. In other words, an analysis of the current circumstances of the learner should be carried out before any training is designed and developed. A necessary step is the capturing of an initial learner profile within the given context. This can also be called as an initial professional development profile, which serves as a “reality check” instrument that guides the design and development of the PDP (e.g., Gregorc, 1973) and as a reference point for the learner’s progress.

Bredeson (2002) argues that the idea of a professional development plan as a “design and construction of opportunities for professional growth and improved practice” is not something new. It is, however, understood and practiced in different ways, such as staff training, staff development, workshops, professional development course, and so on. In the context of this chapter, we adapt Bredeson’s definition of professional development as the working definition of a professional development plan, which is a plan or design of “learning opportunities that engage [professionals’] creative and reflective capacities in ways that strengthen their practice” (Bredeson, 2002, p. 663) and further relevant competences. The following section provides a more comprehensive discussion on this topic concerning the practical use of ADDIE instructional design model for professional learning and development.

4.2 Utilizing ADDIE Instructional Design Model for PL and PD

In this chapter, we adapt the main steps or phases of the ADDIE model of instructional design to emphasize our proposed approach to the planning and implementation of professional learning and development. We provide an overview of the proposed approach by integrating some appropriate steps adapted from Rothwell and Kazanas (2008) into the said model to plan and design a PDP. The main phases of the ADDIE model to be utilized include: Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate (see detailed illustration by Gagné et al., 2005, pp. 21–22). The phases of the model are interconnected and, thus, the model is not strictly linear. Each phase of the model has subcomponents, which describe specific steps of the instructional design process, for instance, from conducting needs analysis through implementation and evaluation.

The ISD model utilized by Rothwell and Kazanas similarly illustrates an interconnection of the steps in the instructional design process (see detailed illustration by Rothwell & Kazanas, 2008). The model presents the steps in a circular manner in order to show that one can start at any point in the process followed by any step. These steps are:

Conducting a needs assessment

Assessing relevant characteristics of learners

Analyzing characteristics of a work setting

Performing job, task, and content analysis

Writing statements of performance objectives

Developing performance measurements

Sequencing performance objectives

Specifying instructional strategies

Designing instructional materials

Evaluating instruction (Rothwell & Kazanas, 2008, p. 60)

Moreover, both models emphasize the importance of determining the needs of the learner and of analyzing them in order to determine whether instruction or an alternative measure is needed. Accordingly, the models’ steps are recommended for the instructional design process. As to the approach adapted in this chapter, we mainly utilize the five phases of the ADDIE model (Gagné et al., 2005) and adapt selected steps of the ISD model utilized by Rothwell and Kazanas.

The phases outlined below are conducted with the additional action of constantly recurring evaluation, which is carried out throughout the whole process. That is, evaluation is utilized as process-oriented (formative) and outcome-oriented (summative) activity, which is conducted in all phases. The following is an overview of the five phases of the ADDIE model with selected sub-steps adapted from the ISD model, which serves as a simple guide for individual learners to engage in self-directed professional learning:

Analysis: This step includes conducting needs assessment and analysis of the present condition. We adapt here the steps of the ISD model, particularly, analyzing characteristics of a work setting and performing job, task, and content analysis (Rothwell & Kazanas, 2008). We recommend that this should be performed at the initial phase of the professional learning and development process. That is, the learner should specifically conduct an analysis of:

  • Skills or competences for PL and PD and the expected outcome or the target skills or competences and determine own goals for PL and PD

  • The characteristics of the work setting and perform job, task, and content analysis

  • Time available, time needed, and other needed resources for PL and PD

  • The initial profile and the possible appropriate solution, i.e., whether instruction or training is needed and/or other forms of learning activities

Also, it is necessary to conduct evaluation in this phase before moving on to the succeeding phases.

Design: This phase is similar to the preparation of a course syllabus. It includes writing and sequencing learning or performance objectives, specifying learning or training strategies, learning materials, as well as designing criteria and measurements for the learning outcome in the form of a working outline or a syllabus. In self-directed PL and PD, the learner should:

  • Specify learning or performance outcomes by translating own PL and PD goals into specific learning objectives

  • Determine and sequence topics or units and objectives as well as determine how much time is needed to fulfill each objective

  • Define specific professional learning and development activities for each of the objectives

  • Develop a table of specifications for assessing learning outcome and progress

This phase also includes deciding and choosing what appropriate e-portfolio platform and design is appropriate. Jafari (2004) recommends 3 necessary steps or tasks in developing a new e-portfolio system. Thus, if one decides to use a new e-portfolio system, one has to go through the following steps to design an appropriate software that will satisfy the desires and needs of the end user: (1) conceptual design, (2) software design, and (3) implementation plan (see Jafari, 2004, p. 40). However, he argues that the human aspect of the design component is very challenging and, thus, it requires a qualified expert. Therefore, without the required expertise, one can also select the most appropriate e-portfolio system from available systems that can satisfy one’s desires and learning needs.

Development: This step should be carried out after accomplishing the design of the PDP. After the syllabus or outline has already been finalized, the learner should:

  • Decide which learning activities and materials are needed

  • Prepare and develop the needed learning activities and materials

  • Develop or specify measurements for the learning outcome or performance

This phase includes the development or preparation of the e-portfolio platform/system as a tool for PL and PD.

Implementation: This step should be carried out after the e-portfolio system has been developed or prepared. In addition, other needed learning activities and materials should be ready for use. This step includes the actual learning process or the actual process of realizing the self-directed and self-designed PDP.

Evaluation: This step should be carried out throughout the whole process. The idea of evaluation is to continuously assess the quality of the plan, tools, and/or materials all throughout the learning process, specifically the effectiveness and efficiency of the plan, materials, or one’s learning. Evaluation is carried out during each phase (i.e., formative evaluation) and upon completion of each phase and of the whole PDP (i.e., summative evaluation).

5 Summary and Conclusions

This chapter provides an overview of the role of e-portfolios in different learning contexts, specifically its potential use as a practical tool for self-directed, reflective, and collaborative professional learning and development. The role of technologies in light of continuous innovations and their ubiquity has paved the way for the development of e-portfolios that are able to foster and support professional learning and development in a digital age. In particular, e-portfolios can support professional learning that is able to foster and sustain self-directed, reflective, and collaborative professional learning as well as continuous professional development.

The chapter discusses using a model of instructional systems design as a valuable approach to designing a professional development plan within an e-portfolio context. The proposed approach places particular emphasis on the capacity of each learner to direct his or her own learning by designing one’s own PDP and by integrating the use of an e-portfolio to support the learning processes. We argued that deliberate planning and preparation must be considered in order to use the tool appropriately and to sustain and foster effective professional learning and development. The first steps are the most crucial ones (e.g., analysis of needs, setting, or content analysis) because they do not only determine the succeeding steps but also the outcome. The initial learner profile will not only provide an overview but it is a necessary step in determining any discrepancy between the present situation and the desired outcome. Most importantly, it helps guide learners in deciding an appropriate course of action in the achievement of their own particular aspired goals and the fulfillment of their own learning needs.

Thus, by serving as a simple guide for deliberately designing and implementing a goal-oriented professional learning and development plan, the proposed approach supports the use or development of e-portfolios as practical tools for fostering and sustaining continuous professional learning. Studies have shown that e-portfolios can support professional learning and consequently the professional growth of the learners (Bala et al., 2012; see also Brown, 2011; Duncan-Pitt & Sutherland, 2006; Johnsen, 2012; and Malita, 2009, among others). In particular, the use of e-portfolios offers learners the opportunity to organize documentation of their learning and to monitor own learning. This consequently offers the opportunity for learners to direct and manage own learning as well as to easily collaborate with others if the learner decides to use e-portfolio for group learning purposes.

In summary, we can infer from various literatures on the use of portfolios that purposeful documentation of learning, artifacts, and reflection upon these are fundamental to the effective use of portfolios that foster lifelong learning (e.g., Bala et al., 2012; Parker et al., 2012; Pelliccione & Raison, 2009; among others). Hence, e-portfolios are appropriate practical tools for professional learning and development because they particularly support current demands of self-directed and reflective learning as well as collaborative learning activities. Also, the widespread use of technologies makes it easier for learners to have ubiquitous access to their e-portfolio entries and learning materials. In addition, the opportunity of having access to others’ artifacts and achievements as well as being able to revisit one’s own reflections anytime and anywhere are among the important reasons why e-portfolios are practical tools for supporting self-directed, reflective, and collaborative professional learning.

Based on empirical findings (e.g., Ayres, 2012; Bala et al., 2012; Chau & Cheng, 2010; Huang et al., 2012; Lin, 2008; among others), we can infer that the advantages and positive impact of using e-portfolios on learning outweigh the disadvantages or challenges that were experienced or encountered by e-portfolio users or developers. Equally, e-portfolio activities are not without their disadvantages. They demand more time in order to engage in reflective activities and learners need to be more engaged in the learning process. However, reflecting on learning per se can promote good learning habits that are fundamental to continuous lifelong learning practices. The use of e-portfolios stresses the essence of self-directed professional learning in that learners can use the tool to take control of their own professional learning. It supports the learners to keep a record and to keep track of their own learning and professional growth. Hence, we argue that the use of e-portfolios fosters continuous professional growth through its capacity to support development and reflection upon competences and achievements.