Zusammenfassung
Das Thema der psychologischen Geschlechtsunterschiede ist noch immer stark emotional und ideologisch besetzt. Hier geht es um eine nüchterne, wissenschaftliche Betrachtung dieser Geschlechtsunterschiede: Wie groß sind Geschlechtsunterschiede in welchen Persönlichkeitsmerkmalen in welchem Alter in welchen Kulturen, wie entwickeln sich diese Unterschiede und wie ist ihre Entwicklung zu erklären? Im Gegensatz zu den vorangegangenen Kapiteln wird also die interkulturelle Perspektive mit einbezogen. Es zeigt sich, dass lerntheoretische, kognitive, kulturpsychologische und evolutionspsychologische Erklärungen sich keineswegs ausschließen, sondern sich in ein Rahmenmodell der Entwicklung von Geschlechtsunterschieden integrieren lassen, das mit den vorliegenden empirischen Befunden zu Geschlechtsunterschieden gut vereinbar ist.
Similar content being viewed by others
Literatur
Alanko, K., Santtila, P., Harlaar, N., Witting, K., Varjonen, M., Jern, P., … & Sandnabba, N.K. (2010). Common genetic effects of gender atypical behavior in childhood and sexual orientation in adulthood: A study of Finnish twins. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 31, 81–92.
Archer, J. (2000). Sex differences in aggression between heterosexual partners: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 651–680.
Archer, J. (2004). Sex differences in aggression in real-world settings: A meta-analytic review. Review of General Psychology, 8, 291–322.
Asendorpf, J.B. (1994). The malleability of behavioral inhibition: A study of individual developmental functions. Developmental Psychology, 30, 912–919.
Asendorpf, J.B. (2011). Non-correspondence between genes and genetic effects. European Journal of Personality, 25, 267–268.
Asendorpf, J.B., Banse, R. & Neyer, F.J. (2017). Psychologie der Beziehung. (2. Aufl.). Bern: Hogrefe.
Asendorpf, J.B. & Wilpers, S. (1998). Personality effects on social relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1531–1544.
Athenstaedt, U. & Alfermann, D. (2011). Geschlechterrollen und ihre Folgen. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.
Auyeung, B., Baron-Cohen, S., Ashwin, E., Knickmeyer, R., Taylor, K., Hackett, G. & Hines, M. (2009). Fetal testosterone predicts sexually differentiated childhood behavior in girls and in boys. Psychological Science, 20, 144–148.
Bailey, J.M., Kim, P.Y., Hills, A. & Linsenmeier, J.A.W. (1997). Butch, femme, or straight acting? Partner preferences of gay men and lesbians. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 960–973.
Bailey, J.M. & Pillard, R.C. (1991). A genetic study of male sexual orientation. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48, 1089–1096.
Bailey, J.M., Pillard, R.C., Neale, M.C. & Agyei, Y. (1993). Heritable factors influence sexual orientation in women. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 217–223.
Bailey, J.M., Vasey, P.L., Diamond, L.M., Breedlove, S.M., Vilain, E. & Epprecht, M. (2016). Sexual orientation, controversy, and science. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 17, 45–101.
Bailey, J.M. & Zucker, K.J. (1995). Childhood sex-typed behavior and sexual orientation: A conceptual analysis and quantitative review. Developmental Psychology, 31, 43–55.
Barkley, R.A., Ullman, D.G., Otto, L. & Brecht, J.M. (1977). The effects of sex typing and sex appropriateness of modeled behavior on children's imitation. Child Development, 48, 721–725.
Barry, H. III., Bacon, M.K. & Child, I.L. (1957). A cross-cultural survey of some sex differences in socialization. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 55, 327–332.
Bell, A.P., Weinberg, M.S. & Hammersmith, S.K. (1981). Sexual preference: Its development in men and women. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Bem, D.J. (1996). Exotic becomes erotic: A developmental theory of sexual orientation. Psychological Review, 103, 320–335.
Bem, S.L. (1981). Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing. Psychological Review, 88, 354–364.
Berry, J.W. (1976). Human ecology and cognitive style: Comparative studies in cultural and psychological adaptation. New York: Sage.
Berry, J.W., Poortinga, Y.H., Segall, M.H. & Dasen, P.R. (2002). Cross-cultural psychology: Research and applications (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Betzig, L. (1986). Depotism and differential reproduction: A Darwinian view of history. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de Gruyter.
Bierhoff-Alfermann, D. (1989). Androgynie: Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Geschlechterrollen. Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag.
Bischof, N. (1980). Biologie als Schicksal? Zur Naturgeschichte der Geschlechterrollendifferenzierung. In N. Bischof & H. Preuschoft (Hrsg.), Geschlechtsunterschiede: Entstehung und Entwicklung (S. 25–42). München: Beck.
Bischof, N. (1985). Das Rätsel Ödipus. München: Piper.
Bischof-Köhler, D. (2011). Von Natur aus anders: Die Psychologie der Geschlechtsunterschiede (4. Aufl.). Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.
Bleske-Rechek, A. & Browne, K. (2014). Trends in GRE scores and graduate enrollment by gender and ethnicity. Intelligence, 46, 25–34.
Breedlove, S.M. (1994). Sexual differentiation of the human nervous system. Annual Review of Psychology, 45, 389–418.
Breedlove, S.M. (1997). Sex on the brain. Nature, 389, 801.
Brunner, M., Krauss, S. & Kunter, M. (2008). Gender differences in mathematics: Does the story need to be rewritten? Intelligence, 36, 403–421.
Buss, D.M. (1989). Sex differences in human mate preferences: Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 12, 1–49.
Buss, D.M. & Schmitt, D.P. (1993). Sexual strategies theory: An evolutionary perspective on human mating. Psychological Review, 100, 204–232.
Casey, M.B., Nuttall, R.L. & Pezaris, E. (1997). Mediators of gender differences in mathematics college entrance test scores: A comparison of spatial skills with internalized beliefs and anxieties. Developmental Psychology, 33, 669–680.
Chodorov, N. (1978). The reproduction of mothering. Berkeley: University of California Press (dt.: Das Erbe der Mütter. München: Frauenoffensive, 1985).
Cohen, J. (1977). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (rev. ed.). New York: Academic Press.
Collaer, M.L. & Hines, M. (1995). Human behavioral sex differences: A role for gonadal hormones during early development? Psychological Bulletin, 118, 55–107.
Costa, P.,Jr., Terracciano, A. & McCrae, R.R. (2001). Gender differences in personality traits across cultures: Robust and surprising findings. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 322–331.
Crick, N.R. & Gropeter, J.K. (1995). Relational aggression, gender, and social-psychological adjustment. Child Development, 66, 710–722.
Daly, M. & Wilson, M. (1979). Sex, evolution, and behavior. North Scituate, MA: Duxbury.
Durham, W.H. (1991). Coevolution: Genes, culture, and human diversity. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Eastwick, P.W., Luchies, L.B., Finkel, E.J. & Hunt, L.L. (2014). The predictive validity of ideal partner preferences: A review and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 623–665.
Eaton, W.O. & Enns, L.R. (1986). Sex differences in human motor activity level. Psychological Bulletin, 100, 19–28.
Eaton, W.O. & von Bargen, D. (1981). Asynchronous development of gender understanding in preschool children. Child Development, 52, 1020–1027.
Edelbrock, C. & Sugawara, A.I. (1978). Acquisition of sex-typed preferences in preschool-aged children. Developmental Psychology, 14, 614–623.
Edelman, D.A. (1986). DES/diethylstilbestrol – New perspectives. Boston, MA: MIT Press.
Else-Quest, N.M., Hyde, J.S. & Linn, M.C. (2010). Cross-national patterns of gender differences in mathematics: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 103–127.
Fagot, B.I. (1985). Beyond the reinforcement principle: Another step toward understanding sex role development. Developmental Psychology, 21, 1097–1104.
Feingold, A. (1990). Gender differences in effects of physical attractiveness on romantic attraction: A comparison across five research paradigms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 981–993.
Feingold, A. (1992a). Good-looking people are not what we think. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 304–341.
Feingold, A. (1994). Gender differences in personality: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 429–456.
Freudenthaler, H.H., Spinath, B. & Neubauer, A.C. (2008). Predicting school achievement in boys and girls. European Journal of Personality, 22, 231–245.
Gangestad, S.W. & Simpson, J.A. (2000). The evolution of human mating: Trade-offs and strategic pluralism. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 23, 573–644.
Goodfellow, P.N. & Lovell-Badge,R. (1993). SRY and sex determination in mammals. Annual Review of Genetics, 27, 71–92.
Halari, R., Hines, M., Kumari, V., Mehrotra, R., Wheeler, M., Ng, V. & Sharma, T. (2005). Sex differences and individual differences in cognitive performance and their relationship to endogenous gonadal hormones and gonadotropins. Behavioral Neuroscience, 119, 104–117.
Halpern, D.F. (2012). Sex differences in cognitive abilities (4th ed.). New York: Psychology Press.
Hamer, D.H. & Copeland, P. (1994). The science of desire: The search for the gay gene and the biology of behavior. New York: Simon & Schuster (deutsche Ausgabe: (1998). Das unausweichliche Erbe: Wie unser Verhalten von unseren Genen bestimmt ist. Bern: Scherz-Verlag).
Harris, C.R. (2003). A review of sex differences in sexual jealousy, including self-report data, psychophysiological responses, interpersonal violence, and morbid jealousy. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 7, 102–128.
Haslam, N. (1997). Evidence that male sexual orientation is a matter of degree. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 862–870.
Helfrich, H. (2013). Kulturvergleichende Psychologie. Wiesbaden: Springer VS.
Hines, M. (2011). Prenatal endocrine influences on sexual orientation and on sexually differentiated childhood behavior. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 32, 170–182.
Hines, M., Golombok, S., Rust, J., Johnston, K.J., Golding, J. & Parents and Children Study Team (2002). Testosterone during pregnancy and gender role behavior of preschool children: A longitudinal, population study. Child Development, 73, 1678–1687.
Holland, J.L. (1973). Making vocational choices. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Huston, A.C. (1983). Sex-typing. In P.H. Mussen & E.M. Hetherington (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology (4th ed.; Vol. 4, pp. 387–467). New York: Wiley.
Hyde, J.S. (1984). How large are gender differences in aggression? A developmental meta-analysis. Developmental Psychology, 20, 722–736.
Hyde, J.S., Fennema, E. & Lamon, S.J. (1990). Gender differences in mathematics performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 139–155.
Hyde, J.S. & Linn, M.C. (1988). Gender differences in verbal ability: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 104, 53–69.
Hyde, J.S. & Mertz, J.E. (2009). Gender, culture, and mathematics performance. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106, 8801–8807.
Joiner, R., Stewart, C., Beaney, C., Moon, A., Maras, P., Guiller, J., … & Brosnan, M. (2014). Publically different, privately the same: Gender differences and similarities in response to Facebook status updates. Computers in Human Behavior, 39, 165–169.
Kane, J.M. & Mertz, J.E. (2012). Debunking myths about gender and mathematics performance. Notices of the AMS, 59, 10–21.
Katz, M.M. & Konner, M.J. (1981). The role of the father: An anthropological perspective. In M.E. Lamb (Ed.), The role of the father in child development (2nd ed., pp.158–186). New York: Wiley.
Kimball, M.M. (1989). A new perspective on women's math achievement. Psychological Bulletin, 105, 196–214.
Kinsey, A.C., Pomeroy, W.B. & Martin, C.E. (1948). Sexual behavior in the human male. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders.
Kinsey, A.C., Pomeroy, W.B., Martin, C.E. & Gebhard, P.H. (1953). Sexual behavior in the human female. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders.
Knight, G.P., Fabes, R.A. & Higgins, D.A. (1996). Concerns about drawing causal inferences from meta-analyses: An example in the study of gender differences in aggression. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 410–421.
Kohlberg, L.A. (1966). A cognitive-developmental analysis of children's sex-role concepts and attitudes. In E.E. Maccoby (Ed.), The development of sex differences (pp. 82–173). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Lambert, W.W. & Tan, A.L. (1979). Expressive styles and strategies in the aggressive actions of children of six cultures. Ethos, 7, 19–36.
Leaper, C. & Ayres, M.M. (2007). A meta-analytic review of gender variations in adults' language use: Talkativeness, affiliative speech, and assertive speech. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 11, 328–363.
LeVay, S. (1991). A difference in hypothalamic structure between heterosexual and homosexual men. Science, 253, 1034–1037.
Levine, S.C., Huttenlocher, J., Taylor, A. & Langrock, A. (1999). Early sex differences in spatial skill. Developmental Psychology, 35, 940–949.
Lindberg, S.M., Hyde, J.S., Petersen, J.L. & Linn, M.C. (2010). New trends in gender and mathematics performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 1123–1135.
Linn, M.C. & Petersen, A.C. (1985). Emergence and characterization of sex differences in spatial ability: A meta-analysis. Child Development, 56, 1479–1498.
Loehlin, J.C. (1992). Genes and environment in personality development. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Lubinski, D. & Benbow, C.P. (2006). Study of mathematically precocious youth after 35 years: Uncovering antecedents for the development of math-science expertise. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 316–345.
Luders, E., Toga, A.W. & Thompson, P.M. (2014). Why size matters: Differences in brain volume account for apparent sex differences in callosal anatomy: The sexual dimorphism of the corpus callosum. Neuroimage, 84, 820–824.
Lytton, H. & Romney, D.M. (1991). Parents’ differential socialization of boys and girls: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 267–296.
Maccoby, E.E. & Jacklin, C.N. (1987). Gender segregation in childhood. In H.W. Reese (Ed.), Advances in Child Development and Behavior (Vol. 20, pp. 239–287). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
Manning, J.T. (2002). Digit ratio. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
McCrae, R.R., Löckenhoff, C.E. & Costa, P.T.,Jr. (2005). A step toward DSM-V: Cataloguing personality-related problems in living. European Journal of Personality, 19, 269–286.
Nickel, H. & Schmidt-Denter, U. (1980). Sozialverhalten von Vorschulkindern. München: Reinhardt.
Oliver, M.B. & Hyde, J.S. (1993). Gender differences in sexuality: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 29–51.
Park, G., Yaden, D.B., Schwartz, H.A., Kern, M.L., Eichstaedt, J.C., Kosinski, M., … & Seligman, M. E. (2016). Women are warmer but no less assertive than men: Gender and language on Facebook. PLoS ONE, 11, e0155885.
Patterson, C.J. (2006). Children of lesbian and gay parents. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 241–244.
Penke, L. & Asendorpf, J. B. (2008a). Beyond global sociosexual orientations: A more differentiated look at sociosexuality and its effects on courtship and romantic relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 1113–1135.
Petersen, J.L. & Hyde, J.S. (2010). A meta-analytic review of research on gender differences in sexuality, 1993–2007. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 21–38.
Putz, D.A., Gaulin, S.J.C., Sporter, R.J. & McBurney, D.H. (2004). Sex hormones and finger length: What does 2D:4D indicate? Evolution and Human Behavior, 25, 182–199.
Richardson, J.G. & Simpson, C.H. (1982). Children, gender, and social structure: An analysis of the contents of letters to Santa Claus. Child Development, 53, 429–436.
Rieger,G., Linsenmeier, J.A.W., Gyax, L. & Bailey, J.M. (2008). Sexual orientation and childhood gender nonconformity: Evidence from home videos. Developmental Psychology, 44, 46–58.
Robertson, S.S., Dierker, L.J., Sorokin, Y. & Rosen, M.G. (1982). Human fetal movement: Spontaneous oscillations near one cycle per minute. Science, 218, 1327–1330.
Rubin, J.Z., Provenzano, F.J. & Luria, Z. (1974). The eye of the beholder: Parents’ views on sex of newborns. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 44, 512–519.
Runkel, G. (1990). Sexualverhalten und Meinungen zu AIDS in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. AIDS-Forschung, 5, 359–375.
Sanders, A.R., Martin, E.R., Beecham, G.W., Guo, S., Dawood, K., Rieger, G., … & Bailey, J.M. (2015). Genome-wide scan demonstrates significant linkage for male sexual orientation. Psychological Medicine, 45, 1379–1388.
Schlegel, A. & Barry, H., III. (1986). The cultural consequences of female contribution to subsistance. American Anthropologist, 88, 142–150.
Schmitt, D. et. al. (2003). Universal sex differences in the desire for sexual variety: Tests from 52 nations, 6 continents, and 13 islands. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 85–104.
Schmitt, D.P. (2005). Sociosexuality from Argentina to Zimbabwe: A 48-nation study of sex, culture, and strategies of human mating. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28, 247–311.
Schmitt, D.P., Realo, A., Voracek, M. & Allik, J. (2008). Why can't a man be more like a woman? Sex differences in Big Five personality traits across 55 cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 168–182.
Schwartz, S.H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. In M.P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 25, pp. 1–65). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
Schwartz, S.H. & Rubel, T. (2005). Sex differences in value priorities: Cross-cultural and multimethod studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 1010–1028.
Signorella, M.L., Bigler, R.S. & Liben, L.S. (1993). Developmental differences in children's gender schemata about others: A meta-analytic review. Developmental Review, 13, 147–183.
Silverman, I. & Eals, M. (1992). Sex differences in spacial abilities: Evolutionary theory and data. In J.H. Barkow, L. Cosmides & J. Tooby (Eds.), The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture (pp. 533–549). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Snow, M.E., Jacklin, C.N. & Maccoby, E.E. (1983). Sex-of-child differences in father-child interaction at one year of age. Child Development, 54, 227–232.
Spinath, F.M., Spinath, B. & Plomin, R. (2008). The nature and nurture of intelligence and motivation in the origin of sex differences in elementary school achievement. European Journal of Personality, 22, 211–229.
Stanley, J. (1990). We need to know why women falter in math. The Chronicle of Higher Education, January 10.
Stanley, J. & Benbow, C.P (1982). Huge sex ratios at upper end. American Psychologist, 37, 972.
Steinmayr, R. & Spinath, B. (2008). Sex differences in school achievement: What are the roles of personality and achievement motivation? European Journal of Personality, 22, 185–209.
Su, R., Rounds, J. & Armstrong, PI. (2009). Men and things, women and people: A meta-analysis of sex differences in interests. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 859–884.
Swaab, D.F., Chung, W.C., Kruijver, F.P., Hofman, M.A. & Ishunina, T.A. (2001). Structural and functional sex differences in the human hypothalamus. Hormones and Behavior, 40, 93–98.
Thompson, S.K. & Bentler, PM. (1971). The priority of cues in sex discrimination by children and adults. Developmental Psychology, 5, 181–185.
Tooby, J. & DeVore, I. (1987). The reconstruction of hominid behavioral evolution through strategic modeling. In W. G. Kinzey (Ed.), The evolution of human behavior (pp. 183–237). New York: State University of New York Press.
Trautner, H.M. (1979). Psychologische Theorien der Geschlechtsrollenentwicklung. In A. Degenhardt & H.M. Trautner (Hrsg.), Geschlechtstypisches Verhalten (S. 50–84). München: Beck.
Trautner, H.M. (1991). Lehrbuch der Entwicklungspsychologie (Bd. 2). Göttingen: Hogrefe.
Trautner, H.M., Helbing, N., Sahm, W.B. & Lohaus, A. (1988). Unkenntnis – Rigidität – Flexibilität: Ein Entwicklungsmodell der Geschlechtsrollen-Stereotypisierung. Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie und Pädagogische Psychologie, 20, 105–120.
Trautner, H.M., Ruble, D.N., Cyphers, L., Kirsten, B., Behrendt, R. & Hartmann, P. (2005). Rigidity and flexibility of gender stereotypes in childhood: Developmental or differential? Infant and Child Development, 14, 365–381.
Trivers, R. (1972). Parental investment and sexual selection. In B. Campbell (Ed.), Sexual selection and the descent of man (pp. 136–179). Chicago, IL: Aldine-Atherton.
Vandenberg, S.G. & Kuse, A.R. (1978). Mental rotations: A group test of three-dimensional spacial visualization. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 47, 599–604.
Vining, D.R. (1986). Social versus reproductive success: The central theoretical problem of human sociobiology. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 9, 167–187.
Voyer, D. & Voyer, S.D. (2014). Gender differences in scholastic achievement: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 1174–1204.
Voyer, D., Postma, A., Brake, B. & Imperato-McGinley, J. (2007). Gender differences in object location memory: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14, 23–38.
Wai, J., Lubinski, D. & Benbow, C.P. (2009). Spatial ability for STEM domains: Aligning over 50 years of cumulative psychological knowledge solidifies its importance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101, 817–835.
Weinert, F.E. & Schneider, W. (Eds.) (1999). Individual development from 3 to 12: Findings from a longitudinal study. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Westermarck, E. (1891). The history of human marriage. London, UK: Macmillan.
Whiting, B.B. & Edwards, C.P. (1988). Children of different worlds: The formation of social behavior. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Whiting, B.B. & Whiting, J.W.M. (1975). Children of six cultures: A psychocultural analysis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Williams, J.E. & Best, D.L. (1982). Measuring sex stereotypes: A thirty nation study. London, UK: Sage.
Wood, W. & Eagly, A.H. (2002). A cross-cultural analysis of the behavior of women and men: Implications for the origin of sex differences. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 699–727.
Weatherhead, P. J. (1986). How unusual are unusual events? The American Naturalist, 128, 150–154.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 Springer-Verlag GmbH Deutschland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Neyer, F.J., Asendorpf, J.B. (2018). Geschlechtsunterschiede. In: Psychologie der Persönlichkeit. Springer-Lehrbuch. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-54942-1_7
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-54942-1_7
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-662-54941-4
Online ISBN: 978-3-662-54942-1
eBook Packages: Psychology (German Language)