Abstract
The present study investigates whether the relationship between religiosity and anti-immigrant attitudes has changed between 1980 and 2016 in Germany. Based on the intrinsic religiosity thesis (Siegers, Köln Z Soziol Sozialpsychol 71:491–517, 2019), I assume that the decreasing social importance of religion in Germany strengthened the alignment between Churches’ message of tolerance and attitudes of religious individuals. If this is true, religiosity should become more associated with positive attitudes towards immigrants. I apply this argument not only to the direct effect of religiosity but also to the indirect effect mediated via contacts with foreigners. I assume that secularization reduces the preference for homophily of religious individuals. Moreover, I expect that the change is more pronounced in West Germany because secularization is already more advanced in East Germany. I analyse the data from the longitudinal data file of the German General Social Survey covering the period from 1980 to 2016 for West Germany and from 1994 to 2016 for East Germany. The results of the moderated mediation model show that there has been a substantial change in the relationship between individual religiosity and anti-immigrant attitudes in West Germany. While in the 1980s church-goers in West Germany tended to be more sceptical about immigrants than the non-religious, this relationship reversed over time: the religious became tolerant. Today, going to church is associated with less anti-immigrant attitudes. Moreover, an indirect effect of religiosity mediated via contacts with foreigners has disappeared over time indicating that the religious preference for homophily decreased. The change is less pronounced in East Germany where over the whole observation period church-goers had more contacts with foreigners than the non-religious leading to more tolerant attitudes.
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Notes
- 1.
We must be cautious when interpreting the results reported by Koopmans because he only reports results for the pooled samples of six countries and does not control for religious participation.
- 2.
Although, the majority of existing research stresses the detrimental effects of specific forms of religiosity on tolerance of ethnic and religious minorities, there are also approaches acknowledging that religiosity can support tolerance towards outgroups. Streib (2018) developed the concept of xenosophia for the study of religion and out-group attitudes. Xenosophia—different from merely neutral attitudes—describes a positive evaluation of leaning about others in contacts with the alien.
- 3.
The 2018 wave does not include the questions on attitudes towards immigration.
- 4.
The exact item wordings are reported in the “Appendix”.
- 5.
In the alignment method, the zero point of the latent variable is chosen in a way to minimize heterogeneity in the model. In this case it is 2010 for West Germany and 2002 for East Germany.
- 6.
Mplus uses a weighted least square mean and variance adjusted (WLSMV) estimator for path models with indirect effects.
- 7.
It should be noted that the main effect of time is estimated for church attendance = 0 “never attending” because an interaction term between both variables is included in the model.
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Appendix
Appendix
1.1 Dependent Variable: Attitudes Towards Immigrants
This question is about the foreigners who live in Germany. On this card, there are some statements we have all heard at one time or another. Please tell me for each statement to what extent you agree with it.
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>1 on the scale means you ‘completely disagree’,
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>7 on the scale means you ‘completely agree’.
You can use the numbers in between to differentiate your answer.
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1.
The foreigners living in Germany [until 1994: guest workers] should adapt their way of life a little more closely to the German way of life [ma01].
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2.
When jobs get scarce, the foreigners living in Germany [until 1994: guest workers] should be sent home again [ma02].
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3.
Foreigners living in Germany [until 1994: guest workers] should be prohibited from taking part in any kind of political activity [ma03].
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4.
Foreigners living in Germany [until 1994: guest workers] should choose to marry people of their own nationality [ma04].
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1.
Focal predictor: church attendance
As a rule, how often do you go to church?
Answer categories:
−9 No answer, −7 Refused; 1 More than once a week; 2 Once a week; 3 Between one and three times a month; 4 Several times a year; 5 <1980:> Less often or never; <from 1982:> Less often, 6 <From 1982:> Never.
Note: scale reversed for analysis.
1.2 Mediator: Contact with Foreigners
Do you have any personal contact with foreigners living in Germany? Specifically…
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1.
…in your own family or close family circle? [mc01]
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2.
…at work? [mc02]
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3.
…in your neighborhood? [mc03]
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4.
…among your other friends and acquaintances? [mc04]
Answer categories:
1) Yes, 2) No, −9) No answer;
1.3 Controls
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a)
Denominational membership
May I ask you what religion you belong to? (Int.: Only one choice possible.)
Answer categories:
−9 No answer, −7 Refused; 1 The German Protestant church (excluding free churches), 2 A Protestant free church; 3 The Roman Catholic church; 4 Another Christian denomination; 5 Another non-Christian denomination; 6 No religious affiliation.
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b)
Self-rated social class
There is a lot of talk about social class these days. What class would you describe yourself as belonging to? The lower class, the working class, the middle class or the upper class?
Answer categories:
−50 None of these classes (Int.: Don't read aloud.); -9 No answer; −8 Don't know; −7 Refused to select a category; 1 The lower class <1982 only in split 1> , 2 The working class, 3 The middle class, 4 The upper middle class; 5 The upper class.
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c)
Educational achievement
What general school leaving certificate do you have? (Int.: Only one choice possible. Request highest school leaving certificate only.)
Answer categories:
−9 No answer; 1 Finished school without school leaving certificate; 2 Lowest formal qualification of Germany’s tripartite secondary school system, after 8 or 9 years of schooling; 3 Intermediary secondary qualification, after 10 years of schooling; 4 Certificate qualifying for studies at a University of Applied Sciences; 5 Certificate qualifying for studies at university level; 6 Other school certificate; 7 <From 1986:> Still at school.
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Siegers, P. (2021). The Religious Become Tolerant. In: Schulz, S., Siegers, P., Westle, B., Hochman, O. (eds) (In)Toleranz in der Einwanderungsgesellschaft?. Blickpunkt Gesellschaft. Springer VS, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-32627-2_6
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