Abstract
The chapter examines the formation of Chaldo-Assyrian identity in the context of their relations with the Kurds after the overthrow of the Ba’ath regime in 2003. On the one hand, the analysis clearly confirms that two sets of cultural features prove to be most distinctive, that is to say religious and ethnic ones, as both groups can be distinguished by different ethnic and religious profiles (Christian and Muslim). On the other hand, it reveals that, despite various cultural, political, religious and ideological discrepancies and contentions between them, we can still find some promising circumstances to build up their mutual understanding and coexistence without an inevitable loss of their respective identities or homeland.
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Notes
- 1.
I employ the term Chaldo-Assyrians to refer to all Syriac Christians in present-day Iraq, while Chaldeans will refer to members of the Chaldean Catholic Church , and, similarly, Assyrians, generally, to adherents of the Assyrian Church of the East , and Syriacs to members of the Syriac Orthodox Church . This question will be elaborated hereunder.
- 2.
These six components of ethnie will be elaborated further while interrogating the historical development of Chaldo-Assyrian ethnic identity.
- 3.
In 1964 the Ancient Church of the East seceded officially due to disputes over the introduction of the Gregorian calendar by the Assyrian Church of the East .
- 4.
After 2000 both Syrian churches were officially renamed ‘Syriac’ to avoid association with the Syrian state and nation. However, this was applied only to the English translation, and the old English designation is still widely used by church bodies. See Roberson (2015).
- 5.
Personal interview with Bishop Bashar Matti Warda, 25 April 2015, Erbil.
- 6.
Interview with Bashar Warda; personal interview with Ano Abdoka, 10 July 2013.
- 7.
Led by a Greek patriarch.
- 8.
During these two international conferences the Assyrian leaders sought to win support of the Allies for their autonomy solutions, but neither these projects nor subsequent British promises in the 1920s yielded self-governing of Assyrians in Iraq (Joseph 2000, 107–149).
- 9.
Personal interview with Srood Maqdasy, 23 April 2015, Erbil.
- 10.
The fifth name can be ‘Judaists’.
- 11.
Personal interview with Saadi Al-Malih, 9 July 2013, Erbil.
- 12.
Interview with Saadi Al-Malih.
- 13.
The genocide of 1915 cost the lives not only of about one million Armenians, but also as many as 250,000 Syriac-speaking Christians. The estimated number of victims of Seyfo varies and usually ranges from 250,000 to 750,000 Assyrians; see (Khosroeva 2007; Travis 2010, 237–277, 293; TNA. FO /839/23, 1–5).
- 14.
It must be noted that under the British mandate, and even after the Simele massacre, Chaldean and Jacobite religious notables stood aside from Assyrian nationalist aspirations, backed by the Nestorian leaders, and yearned for correct and agreeable contacts with the British and consecutive Arab governments. The Simele massacre was seen as a revenge of Kurds and Arabs for Assyrians’ political and military cooperation with the British, for example within a framework of special force called ‘Assyrian Levies’ that remained under the British control (Donabed 2015, 230–238).
- 15.
To be precise, ‘Neo-Aramaic’.
- 16.
Interview with Saadi Al-Malih.
- 17.
From that time, the cultural and educational activity of Chaldo-Assyrians has significantly intensified through establishing cultural clubs, schools with Syriac language and NGOs such as the Assyrian Aid Society (1991), Chaldo-Assyrian Student and Youth Union (1991) or Assyrian Women’s Union (1992) (Personal interview with Yonadam Kanna, 29 June 2013, Erbil and with Jandar Hosaya, the head of the Syriac Library in Ankawa, 9 July 2013, Erbil).
- 18.
Interview with Srood Maqdasy.
- 19.
These elections were held after the USA, UK and France decided to create a ‘no-fly’ zone above Iraqi Kurdistan, from the 36th parallel northwards, as their respond to a humanitarian crisis that arose after the failure of the Kurdish uprising of 1991 (Stansfield 2003, 29, 95–96).
- 20.
Personal interview with Fares, 3 July 2013, Erbil.
- 21.
In the ICP , Chaldo-Assyrians actually played an important role (e.g. in 1941, Yusuf Salman Yusuf ‘Fahd’ was its General Secretary), forming a considerable proportion of its members reaching up to 10% (Donabed 2015, 127).
- 22.
Personal Interview with Ano Abdoka, 21 April 2015.
- 23.
Interview with Fares, 2013.
- 24.
Personal interview with Salim Kako, 1 July 2013, Erbil.
- 25.
As one Chaldo-Assyrian politician highlighted, it was very important for Christians to be mentioned in the state law by their proper own name, not just as an opposition to the majority: ‘It is the first time in history that a constitution of Islamic country recognised Christianity as an official religion. Fifty-seven Muslim countries in the world and none of them recognise that! They only distinguish between Muslims and non-Muslims. But even cows are non-Muslim.’ Personal interview with Isho, 30 June 2013, Erbil.
- 26.
Personal interview with Salim Kako, 25 April 2015, Erbil.
- 27.
Interview with Ano Abdoka, 2013.
- 28.
Interview with Yonadam Kanna.
- 29.
Personal interview with Father Douglas Bazi, Chaldean priest, 18 April 2015, Erbil.
- 30.
Many Christians complained that they lacked support from international donor institutions, like UNHCR, and had to rely on church aid institutions such as Aid to the Church in Need, the Assyrian Church of the East Relief Fund, the Syrian Christians for Peace, the Syrian Network for Human Rights, the Evangelical Christian Alliance Church in Lebanon and the Alliance Church of Jordan (WWM 2017).
- 31.
Phone interview with Salim Kako, 14 January 2018.
- 32.
Personal interview with Younan Hosaya, 29 June 2013, Erbil.
- 33.
Some add also Baghdad and Basra as cities where huge numbers of Christians used to live before 2010. Interview with Yonadam Kanna; interview with Salim Kako, 2013.
- 34.
Interview with Yonadam Kanna.
- 35.
Proposals that Christians in Iraq should have an autonomous region in Iraq under international protection were set forth already after WWI and later in the 1980s and 1998 (Salloum 2013, 62–63).
- 36.
For instance, the Assyrian Women’s Union, founded in 1992 and aligned with the ADM has been contested by the Syriac Chaldean Assyrian Women’s Union established in Bakhdeda in 2006 (Benjamen 2011, 17–18).
- 37.
Interview with Ano Abdoka, 2013.
- 38.
Interview with Fares, 2013.
- 39.
The signatories emphasised that the project was consistent with the Iraqi Constitution allowing for division of Iraq into self-governing regions, and that the area would need at least ten years of international aid and protection until local forces would be prepared to defend its borders. Iraqi minorities move forward with an autonomy plan.
- 40.
‘Beth Nahrain’ in Aram means ‘House of Rivers’ (i.e. the Euphrates and the Tigris).
- 41.
Interview with Salim Kako, 2018.
- 42.
Interview with Srood Maqdasy.
- 43.
Interview with Srood Maqdasy.
- 44.
Interview with Ano Abdoka, 2015.
- 45.
Interview with Ano Abdoka, 2015.
- 46.
Among other well-known Christian people working in the KDP we can find Christof ‘Rebwar’ Yalda, a member of the KDP politburo, the mayor of Ankawa Jalal Habib Aziz, Ano Jawah Abdoka , or Franco Hariri who was assassinated by terrorists in 2001 and after that Erbil’s football stadium was renamed to pay tribute to him.
- 47.
Interview with Saadi Al-Malih.
- 48.
Personal interview with Nasar Khanna, director of GD for Syriac Education, 16 July 2013.
- 49.
Personal interview with Mariwan Naqshbandi from the MERA, KRG, 2013.
- 50.
Interview with Saadi Al-Malih; interview with Salim Kako, 2013.
- 51.
Personal interview with Bishop Rabban Al-Qas, 4 May 2015.
- 52.
Personal interview with Dr. Haidar Laşkrî from the Koye University, 27 April 2015, Koye.
- 53.
Interview with Ano Abdoka, 2013.
- 54.
Interview with Ano Abdoka, 2015.
- 55.
Interview with Salim Kako, 2015.
- 56.
In fact, it is Neo-Aramaic, a contemporary version of ancient Aramaic.
- 57.
Personal interview with Hawzheen Slewa, 28 April 2015. Slewa gained a PhD in Kurdish literature in 2012 and recently published a book The History of Harmota in Kurdish.
- 58.
Personal interview with Abdul Xaliq Muhammad Alî, 30 April 2015, Koye.
- 59.
Personal interview by phone with Isabell, 28 December 2017; Personal interview with Fatin, 15 July 2013; interview with Salim Kako, 2013.
- 60.
Personal interview with Shamshadden Zaya , Deputy Secretary-General of CSAPC , 22 July 2013, Duhok.
- 61.
Interview with Isabell, 2017.
- 62.
Interview with Fatin, 2015; personal interview with Basil, 24 April 2015; Personal interview with George, 3 May 2015.
- 63.
Interview with Fatin, 2015.
- 64.
interview with Hawzheen Slewa.
- 65.
Interview with Isabell. 2015.
- 66.
Interview with father Abu Toma, 22 July 2013.
- 67.
Interview with Fares, 2013; interview with Isabell, 2015.
- 68.
Duhok is called Nohadra in Aramaic.
- 69.
Personal interview with Fares, 24 April 2015, Erbil.
- 70.
Interview with Fatin, 2015; interview with George.
- 71.
Interview with Fares, 2015.
- 72.
Personal interview with Hemin, Kurdish policeman, 20 April 2015.
- 73.
Interview with Fares, 2015.
- 74.
Interview with Fares, 2015.
- 75.
Interview with Isabell, 2017.
- 76.
Interview with Fatin, 2013.
- 77.
Phone interview with Fatin, 29 December 2017.
- 78.
Interview with Isabell, 2017. See also Reese (2017, 163–167).
- 79.
Unfortunately, not all questions were answered, especially in questionnaires.
- 80.
Interview with Fares, 2015.
- 81.
Personal interview with Yousif, 11 July 2013.
- 82.
Personal interview with Abgar, 5 May 2015, Duhok.
- 83.
Personal interview with Paulus, 30 June 2013, Erbil.
- 84.
Interview with Fares, 2015.
- 85.
Personal interview with Yousif, 22 April 2015, Erbil.
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Work on this chapter was supported by the Polish National Science Centre, grant DEC-2012/05/E/HS2/03779.
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Lalik, K. (2018). Ethnic and Religious Factors of Chaldo-Assyrian Identity in an Interface with the Kurds in Iraqi Kurdistan. In: Bocheńska, J. (eds) Rediscovering Kurdistan’s Cultures and Identities. Palgrave Studies in Cultural Heritage and Conflict. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93088-6_6
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