Abstract
For a general definition of “dance,” it is advisable to confine oneself to the physical components, to the human body, and to space and time alone. The manifoldness and the variable cultural entanglements of “dance”—especially the dividing line drawn between the categories “ballet” and “dance”—defy any further definitional trial to give a very general functional outline. However, scholars like Curt Sachs and Joann Kealiinohomoku furthered the idea that all the phenomena of dance could be studied and interpreted by means of one consistent approach (informed by ethnology), no longer admitting western (high) culture a special status. Concepts like “Globalism and Dance” (Barbara Browning) or “Worlding Dance” (Susan Leigh Foster) have followed in this path. Recently, dance studies are confronted with the contexts of social media, video games, and a more and more differentiated leisure culture, in which dance becomes a medium for transnational forms of socialization. At the same time, traditional dance forms are incorporated in UNESCO’s Intangible Cultural Heritage and thereby redefined as global common property.
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Notes
- 1.
The German word tanz, in Middle High German tanz (first danz), is borrowed from the Old French danse and is documented since the twelfth century. In similar articulation it appears, except for the Spanish baile, within the most European languages—from the Portuguese dança, beyond the Czec tanec, up to the Finish tanssi.
- 2.
Rhythmic uniformity, a high degree of movability, and even quasi-choreographic patterns give cause to also speak of bees’ “dances” figuratively. The anthropocentric foundation of “dance” is not affected by doing so however.
- 3.
Claude Conyers, Dance, in: Charles Hiroshi Garrett (ed.), The Grove Dictionary of American Music, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013 (2nd edition), p. 533, straightaway sets the homo sapiens and the homo religiosus to one side with the homo saltatorius.
- 4.
Besides of the mentioned nouns with the roots ball- and choral-, the deep interweaving of the dance-like can also be observed within the following words: orcheísthai (ορχείσθαι), “to move,” “to dance” (later on, semantic change to “orchestra”); mimeísthai (μιμείσθαι), “to imitate,” ‘to represent through dance’; and paízein (παίζειν), “to play,” “to dance.” The Latin extracts the word “to dance” from the root sal- and forms the verb saltare (contracted from salitare) as an iterativum of salire, “to jump.” See Roger Harmon, Tanz. II. Klassische Antike, in: Hubert Cancik (ed.), Der neue Pauly. Enzyklopädie der Antike, vol. 12, Stuttgart/Weimar: Metzler, 2002, p. 14.
- 5.
Championships are held in the standard dances (waltz, tango, Viennese waltz, foxtrot, slow foxtrot, and quickstep) and in Latin American dances (samba, cha-cha-cha, rumba, paso doble, and jive) and often in the discipline rock ‘n’ roll. Furthermore, other dances are executed in a sports context too, with national differences. Since 1989 World and European championships in wheelchair dance are also run.
- 6.
Tanz, in: Hermann Mendel/August Reissmann (eds.), Musikalisches Conversations-Lexikon. Eine Encyklopädie der gesamten musikalischen Wissenschaften in 12 Bänden, vol. 10, Berlin: Heimann/Oppenheim, 1878, p. 93 (reproduction: Hildesheim/Zürich/New York: Olms, 2001)
- 7.
Monika Woitas, Tanz. A. Systematische Aspekte, in: Ludwig Finscher (ed.), Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart, vol. 9, Kassel/Stuttgart: Bärenreiter/Metzler, 1998 (revised edition), col. 230.
- 8.
E.g., the mudra (from the Sanskrit word mudrā, originally for “seal”), a system of hand movements and hand positions, which plays a prominent role in Indian dance especially; in its differentiation, diversity, and complexity, it shows analogies to the rhythmic organization of Indian music.
- 9.
“The word itself carries with it preconceptions that mask the importance and usefulness of analysing the movement dimensions of human action and interaction.” Adrienne L. Kaeppler, Ethnochoreology, in: Stanley Sadie (ed.), The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, vol. 8, London: Macmillan, 2001 (second edition), p. 362.
- 10.
Ibid.
- 11.
Ibid.
- 12.
As a synonym for danzare, the Italian word ballare likewise means “to dance,” going back to the ancient Greek ballízein (βαλλίζειν). The diminutiv balletto from ballo (dance) expands into the French as ballett.
- 13.
“Ballet”—especially in the late Renaissance and Baroque—also designates spectacles and other social events with representative function involving music and dance. For Johann Gottfried Walther, “ballets” are “absonderlich zu Mummereyen und Aufzügen gemachte Tänze, welche auf dergleichen Mascaraden besondere inventiones gerichtet sind [‘peculiar dances made for masquerade and parades, which at suchlike are oriented toward special inventions’]” (Ballet, in: Musikalisches Lexicon oder musikalische Bibliothec, Leipzig: Deer, 1732, facsimile reprint, ed. by Richard Schaal, Kassel/Basel: Bärenreiter, 1953, p. 67). This aspect of a prominent and lavish spectacle can also be found in the type of Pferdeballett [horse ballet], still current today (e.g., in 2012, the choreographed Carrousel de Sanssouci).
- 14.
Ballett, in: Hermann Mendel/August Reissmann (eds.), Musikalisches Conversations-Lexikon. Eine Encyklopädie der gesamten musikalischen Wissenschaften in 12 Bänden, vol. 1, Berlin: Heimann/Oppenheim, 1870, p. 435.
- 15.
Ibid.
- 16.
Gustav Schilling, Ballett, in: Gustav Schilling (ed.), Encyclopädie der gesammten musikalischen Wissenschaften, oder Universal-Lexikon der Tonkunst, vol. 1, Stuttgart: Köhler, 1835, p. 414.
- 17.
Ibid.
- 18.
In addition to the pioneer François Delsarte, at least Isadora Duncan, Rudolf von Laban, Mary Wigman, and Gret Palucca shall be mentioned here.
- 19.
“It is accurate to say that the dance is the single principle art that is either very nearly unmentioned in comprehensive overviews of aesthetic or else treated (almost in a second thought) by way of adjusting arguments strongly and directly grounded in the other arts—principally drama and music—or by way of notions of representation and expression, linked even with the analysis of the literary arts.” Joseph Margolis, The Autographic Nature of the Dance, in: Maxine Sheets-Johnstone (ed.), Illuminating Dance: Philosophical Explorations, Lewisburg/London: Bucknell Univ. Press/Associated Univ. Presses, p. 70. This constellation can possibly explain why the broader, international establishment of academic dance studies could only succeed toward the end of the twentieth century.
- 20.
Die Puppenfee by Josef Bayer (1888) or Pjotr Čajkovskij‘s Nutcracker (1892) can illustrate the principle of the chain of dances of different peoples and nations, for example.
- 21.
Jürgen Osterhammel, Die Verwandlung der Welt. Eine Geschichte des 19. Jahrhunderts, München: Beck, 2009, p. 250.
- 22.
The strangeness and the lack of understanding of other cultures in mind, it seems symptomatic that the Oriental dance or “belly dance” of an Egyptian dancer at the Chicago World Exhibition (1893) was judged as a sensation superficially but above all morally and socially as a scandal.
- 23.
In 1923, Anna Pavlova met the art student Uday Shankar in London and inspired him to devote himself to dance, especially to that of his homeland. In doing so she gave the impulse for the later foundation of a company which was able to shape the Western stereotypes of “Indian dance” for a long time—linking the European ballet technique with Indian stylistic elements and choreographic figures. See Joan L. Erdman, Performance as Translation: Uday Shankar in the West, in: The Drama Review 31 (1987), No. 1, pp. 64–88.
- 24.
See Rudolf von Laban, Kinetografie—Labanotation. Einführung in die Grundbegriffe der Bewegungs- und Tanzschrift, edited by Claude Perrottet, Wilhelmshaven: Noetzel, 1995.
- 25.
Also see Ann Hutchinson Guest, Labanotation—the system of analyzing and recording movement, New York/London: Routledge, 2004.
- 26.
When going with Dirk Baecker, who describes globalization as “Ausweitung des Erwartungshorizonts [‘extension of the horizon of expectations’]” and claims that “die Weltgesellschaft normative Erwartungen zurücknimmt und statt dessen stärker auf einen kognitiven Erwartungsstil umstellt [‘World Society takes back normative expectations, and is shifting about toward a cognitive mode of expectation instead’],” then these two claims can be transferred to the situation described above too—with the only difference that it would not apply as effects but as conditions for globalization processes here: Dirk Baecker, Wozu Kultur? Berlin: Kadmos, 2012, p. 20.
- 27.
Curt Sachs, Eine Weltgeschichte des Tanzes, Berlin: Reimer, 1933.
- 28.
Ibid., p. V.—The extended introduction including such methodological considerations was replaced by a shorter and more general foreword in the English edition from 1937.
- 29.
Jürgen Osterhammel, Globale Horizonte europäischer Kunstmusik, 1860–1930, in: Geschichte und Gesellschaft 38 (2012), p. 95.—Osterhammel formulates this with Sachs’ music-related writings in mind.
- 30.
Curt Sachs, World History of the Dance, New York: Norton, 1937, p. 208.
- 31.
Gertrude Prokosch Kurath, Panorama of Dance Ethnology, in: Current Anthropology 1 (1960), No. 3, pp. 233–254.
- 32.
Ibid., p. 233.
- 33.
Ibid.
- 34.
See Ibid., p. 235. Kurath for her review article questioned Curt Sachs and Franziska Boas via mail. Boas worked as a choreographer, dance teacher, and therapist; in her work she also affiliated with the anthropological research of her father, Franz Boas.
- 35.
Joann Kealiinohomoku, An Anthropologist Looks at Ballet as a Form of Ethnic Dance [1970], in: Ann Dils/Ann Cooper Albright, Moving History/Dancing Cultures: A Dance History Reader, Middletown: Wesleyan Univ. Press, 2001, pp. 33–43.
- 36.
See Hélène Neveu Kringelbach/Jonathan Skinner, The Movement of Dancing Cultures, in: Hélène Neveu Kringelbach/Jonathan Skinner (eds.), Dancing Cultures: Globalization, tourism and identity in the anthropology of dance, New York: Berghahn, 2012, p. 6.
- 37.
Ibid., p. 33.
- 38.
Cf. ibid. Here, among others, Kealiinohomoku criticized the attempt, undertaken by Sachs too, to conceive certain coordinated forms of movement observable in animality as dance and thus to universalise dance.
- 39.
Ibid., p. 37.
- 40.
Such technological developments offer hitherto unexpected possibilities moreover, to—by analogy with film—systematically observe and study dance beyond its transitory nature too, at least in major aspects. Thus at this stage the transformation of dance research into veritable dance studies was strongly supported.
- 41.
Barbara Browning, Global Dance and Globalization: Emerging Perspectives, in: Dance Research Journal 34 (2002), No. 2, p. 12.
- 42.
See Halifu Osumare, Global Breakdancing and the Intercultural Body, in: Dance Research Journal 34 (2002), No. 2, pp. 30–45.
- 43.
See the often-quoted contribution by Roland Robertson, Glokalisierung. Homogenität und Heterogenität in Raum und Zeit, in: Ulrich Beck (ed.), Perspektiven der Weltgesellschaft, Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1998, pp. 192–220.
- 44.
Halifu Osumare, Global Breakdancing and the Intercultural Body, op. cit., p. 31.
- 45.
See Emi Hatano, Expression and Possibility. Toward a Unified Theory of Modern Dance, New York: HCI Publications, 1996.
- 46.
See Ann Dils/Ann Cooper Albright, Looking at world dance, in: Ann Dils/Ann Cooper Albright (eds.), Moving History/Dancing Cultures: A Dance History Reader, Middletown: Wesleyan Univ. Press, 2001. pp. 92–96. The authors use the term, but at the same moment also expose the problems of it; see p. 92f.
- 47.
Cf. Susan Leigh Foster (ed.), Worlding dance, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009.
- 48.
Ibid., p. 1.
- 49.
The editorial decision of The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians to distinguish the terms “dance” and “ethnochoreology” from one another (see. above, note 9) thus seems to offer the most mature approach, to remodel or mitigate this dichotomy at least conceptually.
- 50.
Susan Leigh Foster (ed.), Worlding dance, op. cit. p. 9.—Concerning theory we are less talking about globalization here, but of mondialisation (following Henri Lefebvre): “Mondialisation is the process of becoming worldwide, the seizing and grasping of the world as a whole, comprehending it as a totality, as an event in thought.” Stuart Elden, Mondialisation before Globalization. Lefebvre and Axelos, in: Kanishka Goonewardena/Stefan Kipfer/Richard Milgrom/Christian Schmid (eds.), Space, Difference, Everyday Life. Reading Henri Lefebvre, New York/London: Routledge, 2008, p. 80.
- 51.
In 2004 Klaus Neumann-Braun, Axel Schmidt and Manfred Mai stated: “Die Musiktelevision hat […] enorm zur Globalisierung des Pop beigetragen. [‘Music television has contributed to the globalization of pop enormously’]”: Klaus Neumann-Braun/Axel Schmidt/Manfred Mai, We can‘t rewind! Einführung, in: Klaus Neumann-Braun/Axel Schmidt/Manfred Mai (eds.), Popvisionen. Links in die Zukunft, Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 2004, p. 12f.
- 52.
Claudia Rosiny, Tanz Film. Indermediale Beziehungen zwischen Mediengeschichte und moderner Tanzästhetik, Bielefeld: Transcript, 2013, p. 293.
- 53.
Sun Jung/Doobo Shim, Social distribution: K-pop fan practices in Indonesia and the “Gangnam Style” phenomenon, in: International Journal of Cultural Studies 17 (2014), No. 5, pp. 485–501.—Apparently choreography is not treated here.
- 54.
In 1993 Buckland/Stewart complain about the lack of attention paid by the research to dance in music videos already: “[it] has received virtually no direct attention.” Theresa Jill Buckland/Elizabeth Stewart, Dance and Music Video, in: Stephanie Jordan/Dave Allen (eds.), Parallel Lines. Media Representations of Dance. London: Libbey, 1993, p. 53. Instead, it is proposed here to pay more attention to the »pop star as dancer«-phenomenon (ibid., p. 58), by what means dance gets forcefully removed from being categorized as an accessory part.
- 55.
See the title formulation of Jung/Shim, Social distribution: K-pop fan practices in Indonesia and the “Gangnam Style” phenomenon, loc. cit.
- 56.
Announcement of BBC News, May 14, 2014.
- 57.
Kiri Miller, Playing Along. Digital Games, YouTube, and Virtual Performance. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 2012; the relevant chapter is called Music Lessons 2.0; see pp. 155–182.
- 58.
Detailed dance tutorial videos as, e.g., Mandy Jiroux offers it on her YouTube channel, partly do show up eight-digit user access numbers and clearly refute the evaluation of Claudia Rosiny, according to which “kennzeichnend für Tanz auf YouTube ist die vorherrschende bewusste und ungenierte Amateurhaftigkeit [‘characteristic for dance on YouTube is the predominant conscious and unabashed amateurishness’]” (Claudia Rosiny, Tanz Film, op. cit., p. 298) as well as “die Zelebrierung des Banalen, Blöden und Hässlichen [‘the celebration of the banal, stupid and ugly’]” (Ibid., p. 294f.), in the sense of dorky dance. Remarkably, the mentioned dancer obviously uses the popularity of her dance tutorial format also in terms of cross marketing, to promote her career as a singer.
- 59.
See online at: www.communitydance.org.uk/big-dance.html (last accessed 28.11.2017).
- 60.
Joanna Demers, Dancing Machines: “Dance Dance Revolution,” Cybernetic Dance, and Musical Taste, in: Popular Music 25 (2006), No. 3, p. 402.
- 61.
See Matthias Röhrig Assunção, Capoeira. The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art, London/New York: Routledge, 2002; Greg Downey, Learning Capoeira: Lessons in Cunning from an Afro-Brazilian Art, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
- 62.
The Berlin-based association Capoeira Angola e.V. in its self-description therefore uses the ambiguous slogan “Projects to move society.” See online at: www.capoeira-angola.de (last accessed 28.11.2017).
- 63.
See online at: www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?lg=en&pg=00011&RL=00892 (last accessed 28.11.2017).
- 64.
UNESCO, Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?lg=en&pg=00006 (last accessed 28.11.2017).
- 65.
Ibid. (preamble).
- 66.
Though UNESCO emphasizes that a fixation of cultural practice is not intended: “[…] safeguarding does not mean fixing or freezing intangible cultural heritage in some pure or primordial form. Safeguarding intangible cultural heritage is about the transferring of knowledge, skills and meaning.” UNESCO, op. cit., online at: www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/safeguarding-00012 (last accessed 28.11.2017).
- 67.
Gabriele Brandstetter, Nomadischer Tanz—Bewegung zwischen den Kulturen, in: Magazin der Kulturstiftung des Bundes, No. 14 (Autumn 2009), online at: www.kulturstiftung-des-bundes.de/cms/de/mediathek/magazin/magazin14/nomadischer_tanz/index.html (last accessed 28.11.2017).
- 68.
See ibid.
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Fischer, E., Kleinschrodt, A. (2019). Dance. In: Kühnhardt, L., Mayer, T. (eds) The Bonn Handbook of Globality. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90382-8_8
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