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Genetic Resources Law

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Handbook of Agri-Food Law in China, Germany, European Union

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Abstract

As an extensive collective term, biodiversity includes the variety of life on earth. Biodiversity comprises all the millions of different species that live on our planet, as well as the genetic differences within species. It also refers to the multitude of different ecosystems in which species form unique communities, interact with another and the air, water and soil. This part of biodiversity which is used for food, agriculture forestry and fishing or which is potentially usable, is called agrobiodiversity. Genetic resources in general are one part of biodiversity and so genetic resources for food and agriculture are one part of the agrobiodiversity. ‘Resources’ is the general term for all kinds of elements concerning material, financial and human aspects available within a certain country or region. Resources are divided into natural resources (sunlight, air, water, land, forests, grasslands, animals, mineral deposits) and social resources (human resources, information resources, and a variety of material wealth created by labour). A genetic resource is any resource of a plant, an animal, microbial or other origin containing functional units of heredity, which is in any way useful or could be useful for the people, which means any material in this context of an actual or potential value (e.g. for breeding new crops or obtaining food and raw materials). Plant and animal genetic resources for food and agriculture are irreplaceable resources for the genetic improvement of crops and livestock as well as agricultural increase and good quality. They are essential for the adaptation to unpredictable environmental changes and future human needs, so their sustainable use is of crucial importance. Food production, combating poverty and the food security of the increasing human population (by 2050 mankind will have risen to 9.6 billion people as estimated by the German Foundation for World Population) depend essentially on the conservation and sustainable use of genetic resources in the field of agrobiodiversity.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Henne (1998), p. 33; Swingland (2001), p. 377.

  2. 2.

    Eiden et al. (2014), § 7, p. 194.

  3. 3.

    Wissenschaftlicher Beirat für Biodiversität und Genetische Ressourcen beim Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz (2012), p. 14. http://www.bmel.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/Ministerium/Beiraete/Biodiversitaet/EmpfehlungUmsetzunNagoya.pdf?__blob=publicationFile. Accessed 20 March 2017.

  4. 4.

    See on this point occasionally WWF (2008), p. 1. http://www.wwf.de/fileadmin/fm-wwf/Publikationen-PDF/HG_CBD_Genetische_Ressourcen.pdf. Accessed 20 March 2017.

  5. 5.

    http://www.weltbevoelkerung.de/uploads/tx_aedswpublication/FS_Entw_Projekt_web.pdf. Accessed 20 March 2017.

  6. 6.

    Cf. on this Epiney and Scheyli (2000), ch 9, p. 261 f.; see especially to legal questions concerning central world problems Härtel (2014a), § 1, p. 13.

  7. 7.

    See e.g. FAO (2007), p. 13 f. ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/a1260e/a1260e00.pdf. Accessed 20 March 2017.

  8. 8.

    As a Result, this term possibly traces back to Pat Mooney, an activist of the non-governmental organisation Rural Advancement Foundation International (RAFI, today ETC Group). He shaped it at the beginning of the 1990s, see on this also Lochen (2007), p. 16 f., with examples for such cases and the problems in this area; von Saint André (2013), p. 24 ff.

  9. 9.

    In the year 2002 twelve emerging and developing nations (amongst others China, India and Brazil) founded an alliance against bio-piracy, because in those countries ca. 70% of the worldwide biodiversity concentrated, cf. Deutscher Bundestag (2002), p. 291; see in regard to the distribution of genetic resources in individual countries also Loft (2009), p. 18.

  10. 10.

    See IUCN (2017). http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/188088/0. Accessed 20 March 2017.

  11. 11.

    Lochen (2007), p. 9; see on this also WBGU (2011), p. 41 ff.

  12. 12.

    See for example Busch (2014), § 14, p. 338.

  13. 13.

    http://www.ble.de/DE/04_Programme/02_BiologischeVielfalt/02_Pflanzen/NatFachprogrammPflanzen_node.html. Accessed 30 January 2017.

  14. 14.

    http://www.ble.de/DE/04_Programme/02_BiologischeVielfalt/02_Pflanzen/NatFachprogrammPflanzen_node.html. Accessed 30 January 2017.

  15. 15.

    http://www.ble.de/DE/04_Programme/02_BiologischeVielfalt/02_Pflanzen/NatFachprogrammPflanzen_node.html. Accessed 30 January 2017.

  16. 16.

    See e.g. FAO (2007), p. 13 f. ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/a1260e/a1260e00.pdf. Accessed 20 March 2017. The actual number will be even higher because there are no population data of 36% of the races, see also Bundesanstalt für Landwirtschaft und Ernährung (2015) http://www.ble.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/Publikationen/Broschueren/RoteListe.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=1. Accessed 7 Feb 2017.

  17. 17.

    See e.g. FAO (2007), p. 13 f. ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/a1260e/a1260e00.pdf. Accessed 20 March 2017.

  18. 18.

    See e.g. FAO (2007), p. 30. ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/a1260e/a1260e00.pdf. Accessed 20 March 2017.

  19. 19.

    The outcome of the conference were five documents: the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, the Convention on Climate Change, the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Forest Principles, the Agenda 21 and the Convention to Combat Desertification. Convention on Biological Diversity—CBD, Rio de Janeiro, 5 June 1992. http://www.cbd.int/doc/legal/cbd-en.pdf. Accessed 30 January 2017. Since according to Article 42 CBD it is authentic only in Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish wording, these languages have to be consulted if questions of interpretation arise. German translation in BGBl 1993 II, 1741.

  20. 20.

    Germany is a signatory party since 1993, BGBl 1993 II, 1742; see on the types of international treaties von Arnauld (2014), § 3 recital 190 f.; Beyerlin (2000), pp. 20, 188, 193.

  21. 21.

    Amongst them Germany and China.

  22. 22.

    http://www.cbd.int/information/parties.shtml. Accessed 30 January 2017.

  23. 23.

    Scheyli (2000), pp. 771, 772.

  24. 24.

    Kloepfer (2004), ch 11 recital 12; example of previous agreements Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna—CITES (Washingtoner Artenschutzübereinkommen) 3 March 1973; further examples see Loft (2009), p. 29 ff.

  25. 25.

    Article 2 CBD genetic material, “Genetic material” means any material of plant, animal, microbial or other origin containing functional units of heredity.

  26. 26.

    Article 1 CBD “…the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources.”

  27. 27.

    The term goes back to the superintendent Hans Carl v. Carlowitz. See about the historical development Monien (2014a), p. 150 ff.; further understanding and meaning of the term Sparwasser et al. (2003), ch 2 recital 23 m.w.N.; Kahl (2008); international level Rest (1996), pp. 145, 151 ff.

  28. 28.

    Proelß (2013), p. 435 recital 156.

  29. 29.

    Beirat für Biodiversität und Genetische Ressourcen beim Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz (2010), p. 5. http://www.bmel.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/Tier/TierzuchtTierhaltung/Gutachten-Biopatente.pdf?__blob=publicationFile. Accessed 20 March 2017.

  30. 30.

    Stoll and Schillhorn (1998), pp. 625, 630.

  31. 31.

    Contrary to this, the concept of Community goods (global commons), which is based on free access to genetic raw material and thus also free patentability, see Kotzur (2008), pp. 225, 229 f.; Proelß (2013), p. 436 recital 157.

  32. 32.

    Henne (1998), p. 148.

  33. 33.

    Lochen (2007), p. 119; von Saint André (2013), p. 34.

  34. 34.

    See Lochen (2007), p. 119; von Saint André (2013), p. 36 f.

  35. 35.

    von Saint André (2013), p. 33.

  36. 36.

    Bonn Guidelines on Access to Genetic Resources and Fair and Equitable Sharing of the Benefits Arising out of their Utilization, von April 2002, available at: https://www.cbd.int/doc/publications/cbd-bonn-gdls-en.pdf. Accessed 31 January 2017.

  37. 37.

    See for further details about the Bonn Guidelines Godt (2004), p. 202 ff.; Tully (2003), pp. 84, 88 ff.; Lochen (2007) p. 134 ff.; Bhatti et al. (2009), p. 25 ff.

  38. 38.

    It is clear from the regulations, which are preceded by the Guidelines Preamble, that these are not binding; see also https://www.cbd.int/abs/bonn/. Accessed 31 January 2017.

  39. 39.

    https://www.cbd.int/abs/bonn/. Accessed 20 March 2017.

  40. 40.

    Proelß (2013), p. 436 recital 158.

  41. 41.

    See about the term soft law Ehricke (1989), pp. 1906, 1907; Monien (2014b), § 34, pp. 789, 790 f. m.w.N.

  42. 42.

    Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization—NP 29 October 2010. http://www.cbd.int/abs/doc/protocol/nagoya-protocol-en.pdf. Accessed 31 January 2017.

  43. 43.

    http://www.bfn.de/index_abs.html. Accessed 31 January 2017. A current list of the signatories and Member States is available at: http://www.cbd.int/abs/nagoya-protocol/signatories/default.shtml. Accessed 31 January 2017.

  44. 44.

    Regulation (EU) 511/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 April 2014 on compliance measures for users from Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization in the Union [2014] OJ L 150/59.

  45. 45.

    Proelß (2013), p. 436 recital 158; http://www.cbd.int/abs/about/default.shtml. Accessed 31 January 2017.

  46. 46.

    http://www.bfn.de/10cop.html. Accessed 31 January 2017. Article 15 of The Nagoya protocol stipulates: Each Party shall take appropriate, effective and proportionate legislative, administrative or policy measures to provide that genetic resources utilized within its jurisdiction have been accessed in accordance with prior informed consent and that mutually agreed terms have been established, as required by the domestic access and benefit-sharing legislation or regulatory requirements of the other Party.

  47. 47.

    International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture—ITPGRFA, 3 November 2001 available at: http://www.planttreaty.org/. Accessed 31 January 2017; ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/011/i0510e/i0510e.pdf. Accessed 31 January 2017; this contract replaced the so-called International Undertaking für pflanzengenetische Ressourcen für Ernährung und Landwirtschaft, see about Henne (1998), p. 99 ff.

  48. 48.

    The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture was adopted by the Thirty-First Session of the Conference of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations on 3 November 2001.

  49. 49.

    Germany signed the contract in June 2002.

  50. 50.

    An overview of the contracting parties is available at: http://www.fao.org/plant-treaty/countries/membership/en/. Accessed 21 March 2017; this treaty emphasizes the fixation of the paradigm shift from the common-heritage principle within the framework of the IUPGR to the principle of sovereign sovereignty over genetic resources, see Lochen (2007), pp. 29 ff., 40.

  51. 51.

    http://www.fao.org/plant-treaty/countries/membership/en/. Accessed 21 March 2017; in Germany, the treaty has been ratified as a federal law requiring approval, see Law on the International Treaty of 3 November 2001 on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture of 10 November 2001, BGBl 2003 II, 906.

  52. 52.

    Zhang (2012), p. 137.

  53. 53.

    http://www.planttreaty.org/content/multilateral-system. Accessed 6 February 2017.

  54. 54.

    See in detail Lochen (2007), p. 194 ff.

  55. 55.

    35 food crops and 20 forage crops.

  56. 56.

    http://www.fao.org/plant-treaty/overview/en/. Accessed 21 March 2017; see also Eiden et al. (2014), § 7, pp. 194, 202.

  57. 57.

    According to this, natural and legal persons can be excluded from the multilateral system if they have not brought in plant genetic resources for food and agriculture. The provision is designed as a discretionary regulation (“can”).

  58. 58.

    Lochen (2007), p. 203.

  59. 59.

    http://www.bmel.de/DE/Landwirtschaft/Nachhaltige-Landnutzung/BiologischeVielfalt/_Texte/Internationale%20Zusammenarbeit.html. Accessed 6 February 2017.

  60. 60.

    Lochen (2007), p. 233.

  61. 61.

    Lochen (2007), p. 233.

  62. 62.

    Lochen (2007), p. 233.

  63. 63.

    http://www.cambia.org/daisy/KeyOrgs/1236/428.html. Accessed 6 February 2017.

  64. 64.

    http://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/other_treaties/parties.jsp?treaty_id=27&group_id=22. Accessed 6 February 2017.

  65. 65.

    Meanwhile, it stated unless the government of the People’s Republic of China had further noticed, “UPOV1978” temporarily not applicable to the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China.

  66. 66.

    Mingyue (2008). In March 1997, the State Council issued the Ordinance on the Protection of New Plant Varieties: new plant variety protection in China is artificial cultivation or found wild plants after the development, with novelty, distinctness, uniformity and stability and proper naming of new varieties of plants.

  67. 67.

    Dutfield (2011), Paper 8.

  68. 68.

    Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights—TRIPS-Agreement, Annex 1C des Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, 15 April 1994, http://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/27-trips_01_e.htm. Accessed 6 February 2017.

  69. 69.

    General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade—GATT, signed 30 October 1947 and came into force on 1 January 1948.

  70. 70.

    See about the history of the TRIPS-Abkommen Senti (2000); Drexl (1994), p. 777.

  71. 71.

    Preamble: “Desiring to reduce distortions and impediments to international trade, and taking into account the need to promote effective and adequate protection of intellectual property rights, and to ensure that measures and procedures to enforce intellectual property rights do not themselves become barriers to legitimate trade”.

  72. 72.

    von Saint André (2013), p. 276.

  73. 73.

    Kewitz (2008), p. 76; Gruber (2011), pp. 468, 478.

  74. 74.

    See also the overview of the represented solutions by Kewitz (2008), p. 78 ff.; von Saint André (2013), p. 278 ff. A logical solution is to exclude the patentability of genetic material within the meaning of the exclusion grounds already provided for in Article 27 (3b) of the TRIPS Agreement if genetic resources were obtained without the consent of the supplying States or in this case to adopt an infringement of the public policy within the meaning of Article 27 (2) of the TRIPs Agreement. Decision No 391 of the Andean Community provides for an exclusion within the meaning of Article 27 (3b) of the TRIPS Agreement. However, this is problematic because the exemptions of Article 27 (3b) of the TRIPS Agreement are very restrictive and Article 27 (1) of the TRIPs Agreement contains a comprehensive patent protection. Another approach provides for provisions to disclose the origin of genetic resources (PICs) to be applied to the TRIPs Agreement for the purpose of benefit sharing and protection of traditional knowledge, so as to ensure consistency between the safeguards of the TRIPs Agreement and the CBD to achieve a coherent overall system. This type of approach is also termed “disclosure approach”. Furthermore, the problem is also addressed to the fact that the CBD guidelines are most effectively brought into line with the TRIPS agreement within the framework of national regulations outside the patent law.

  75. 75.

    von Saint André (2013), p. 294.

  76. 76.

    See von Saint André (2013), p. 295 f.

  77. 77.

    See in detail about the case http://www1.american.edu/TED/MERCK.HTM. Accessed 6 February 2017; Zebich-Knos (1997), p. 180.

  78. 78.

    Spranger (2010), p. 209.

  79. 79.

    Spranger (2001), pp. 89, 92.

  80. 80.

    Spranger (2010), p. 209.

  81. 81.

    http://www.ble.de/DE/04_Programme/02_BiologischeVielfalt/BiologischeVielfalt_node.html. Accessed 6 February 2017; http://www.drze.de/im-blickpunkt/biodiversitaet/module/genetische-ressourcen. Accessed 6 February 2017.

  82. 82.

    http://www.drze.de/im-blickpunkt/biodiversitaet/module/genetische-ressourcen. Accessed 6 February 2017.

  83. 83.

    Bundesanstalt für Landwirtschaft und Ernährung (2011), p. 4. http://www.genres.de//fileadmin/SITE_GENRES/downloads/faktenblaetter/FactSheet_Pflanze.pdf. Accessed 6 February 2017.

  84. 84.

    Bundesanstalt für Landwirtschaft und Ernährung (2008), p. 23.

  85. 85.

    Bundesanstalt für Landwirtschaft und Ernährung (2011), p. 3. http://www.genres.de//fileadmin/SITE_GENRES/downloads/faktenblaetter/FactSheet_Pflanze.pdf. Accessed 6 February 2017.

  86. 86.

    http://www.ble.de/DE/04_Programme/02_BiologischeVielfalt/02_Pflanzen/NatFachprogrammPflanzen.html. Accessed 6 February 2017; Bundesanstalt für Landwirtschaft und Ernährung (2011), p. 4. http://www.genres.de//fileadmin/SITE_GENRES/downloads/faktenblaetter/FactSheet_Pflanze.pdf. Accessed 6 February 2017.

  87. 87.

    Bundesanstalt für Landwirtschaft und Ernährung (2008), p. 27.

  88. 88.

    Bundesanstalt für Landwirtschaft und Ernährung (2008), p. 28.

  89. 89.

    Bundesanstalt für Landwirtschaft und Ernährung (2008), p. 28.

  90. 90.

    Bundesanstalt für Landwirtschaft und Ernährung (2008), p. 28.

  91. 91.

    Bundesanstalt für Landwirtschaft und Ernährung (2008), p. 29.

  92. 92.

    http://www.ble.de/DE/04_Programme/02_BiologischeVielfalt/03_Tiere/NatFachprogrammTiere_node.html. Accessed 7 February 2017.

  93. 93.

    Commission of the European Communities COM (1998) 42 final.

  94. 94.

    Commission of the European Communities COM (2001) 162 final.

  95. 95.

    Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz (2008), p. 19.

  96. 96.

    Commission of the European Communities COM (2006) 216 final.

  97. 97.

    European Commission COM (2011) 244 final.

  98. 98.

    Council Regulation (EC) 870/2004 of 24 April 2004 establishing a Community programme on the conservation, characterisation, collection and utilisation of genetic resources in agriculture and repealing Regulation (EC) 1467/94 [2004] OJ L 162/18.

  99. 99.

    http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/genetic-resources/. Accessed 7 February 2017.

  100. 100.

    Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz (2008), p. 20.

  101. 101.

    Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz (2010a), p. 1.

  102. 102.

    Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz (2013), p. 6.

  103. 103.

    Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz (2013), p. 6.

  104. 104.

    Strategy on Conservation and Sustainable Use of Biological Diversity for food, agriculture, forestry and fisheries.

  105. 105.

    Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz (2013), p. 6.

  106. 106.

    Animal Breeding Act of 21 December 2006 (BGBl I, p. 3294), last amended by art. 132 of the Act of 29 March 2017 (BGBl. I, p. 626).

  107. 107.

    Seed Trade Act of 16 July 2004 (BGBl I, p. 1673), last amended by art. 1 of the Act of 20 December 2016 (BGBl I, p. 3041).

  108. 108.

    Federal Nature Conservation Act of 29 July 2009 (BGBl I, p. 2542), last amended by art. 4 G of the Act of 29 May 2017 (BGBl I, p. 1298).

  109. 109.

    Oeter in von Mangoldt et al. (2010), GG Article 72 recital 58; Degenhart in Sachs (2014), GG Article 72 recital 27.

  110. 110.

    Bundesministerium für Ernährung und Landwirtschaft (2015), p. 59.

  111. 111.

    http://www.fisaonline.de/index.php?lang=en&act=funding&fp_id=100. Accessed 7 February 2017.

  112. 112.

    http://www.ble.de/DE/04_Forschungsfoerderung/03_FoerderungAuftraege/05_MuD/MuDVorhaben_node.html. Accessed 21 March 2017.

  113. 113.

    Bundesanstalt für Landwirtschaft und Ernährung (2008), p. 29.

  114. 114.

    See Bundesministerium für Ernährung und Landwirtschaft (2015), p. 15 ff.; Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz (2008), p. 19 f.

  115. 115.

    Erbguth and Schlacke (2012), § 5 recital 15.

  116. 116.

    http://www.iucnredlist.org/initiatives/europe. Accessed 20 March 2017.

  117. 117.

    See about the precautionary principle Erbguth and Schlacke (2012), § 3 recital 3 ff.

  118. 118.

    http://www.ecpgr.cgiar.org/. Accessed 7 February 2017.

  119. 119.

    http://www.ecpgr.cgiar.org/. Accessed 7 February 2017.

  120. 120.

    http://www.ecpgr.cgiar.org/about-ecpgr/overview/. Accessed 7 February 2017.

  121. 121.

    http://www.ecpgr.cgiar.org/resources/germplasm-databases/eurisco-catalogue/. Accessed 7 February 2017.

  122. 122.

    http://eurisco.ipk-gatersleben.de/apex/f?p=103:1. Accessed 7 February 2017.

  123. 123.

    http://www.ecpgr.cgiar.org/resources/germplasm-databases/eurisco-catalogue/. Accessed 7 February 2017.

  124. 124.

    http://www.ecpgr.cgiar.org/aegis/about-aegis/. Accessed 7 February 2017.

  125. 125.

    http://www.genres.de/. Accessed 7 February 2017.

  126. 126.

    http://www.deutsche-genbank-obst.de/. Accessed 21 March 2017.

  127. 127.

    http://www.genres.de/kultur-und-wildpflanzen/erhaltung/. Accessed 7 February 2017.

  128. 128.

    http://www.genres.de/kultur-und-wildpflanzen/erhaltung/. Accessed 7 February 2017.

  129. 129.

    Since 1987, there is a database for animal genetic resources of the European Association for Animal Breeding (EVT) at the University of Veterinary Medicine in Hanover. This database soon extended its spectrum beyond Europe and provided information on the characteristics, distribution and vulnerability of nearly 1000 livestock breeds from 38 countries.

  130. 130.

    http://www.genres.de/kultur-und-wildpflanzen/erhaltung/in-situ-erhaltung/. Accessed 7 February 2017.

  131. 131.

    http://www.genres.de/kultur-und-wildpflanzen/erhaltung/on-farm-bewirtschaftung/. Accessed 7 February 2017.

  132. 132.

    http://www.genres.de/kultur-und-wildpflanzen/erhaltung/on-farm-bewirtschaftung/. Accessed 7 February 2017.

  133. 133.

    Bundesministerium für Ernährung und Landwirtschaft (2015); Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz (2008), p. 19; Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz (2010a); Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucher-schutz (2010b).

  134. 134.

    Bundesministerium für Ernährung und Landwirtschaft (2015).

  135. 135.

    Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz (2008). There is a discussion about another National Programme for the Conservation and sustainable use of microorganisms` genetic resources.

  136. 136.

    http://tgrdeu.genres.de/. Accessed 7 February 2017.

  137. 137.

    http://tgrdeu.genres.de/. Accessed 7 February 2017.

  138. 138.

    http://tgrdeu.genres.de/. Accessed 7 February 2017.

  139. 139.

    https://beirat-tgr.genres.de/. Accessed 7 February 2017.

  140. 140.

    Rote Liste der einheimischen Nutztierrassen in Deutschland 2015, https://www.ble.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/08_Service/07_Publikationen/Broschueren/RoteListe.html?nn=2304662. Accessed 7 February 2017.

  141. 141.

    http://pgrdeu.genres.de/. Accessed 7 February 2017.

  142. 142.

    http://pgrdeu.genres.de/. Accessed 7 February 2017.

  143. 143.

    http://www.genres.de/kultur-und-wildpflanzen/monitoring-und-nationales-inventar/. Accessed 7 February 2017.

  144. 144.

    An overview about the European legislation concerning animals in general and especially animal breeding can be found under http://ec.europa.eu/food/animals/zootechnics/legislation/index_en.htm. Accessed 7 February 2017.

  145. 145.

    See for example Animal Breeding Organisation Ordinance of 29 April 2009 (BGBl I, p. 1039), last amended by art. 26 of the Act of 6 December 2011 (BGBl I, p. 2515); Seed Ordinance of 14 October 2008 (BGBl I, p. 2053, 2181); Ordinance on Courses by the Animal Breeding Act of 15 October 1992 (BGBl I, p. 1776).

  146. 146.

    http://universal_lexikon.deacademic.com/310008/Tierzuchtgesetz. Accessed 7 February 2017.

  147. 147.

    Council Regulation (EC) 2100/94 of 27 July 1994 on Community plant variety rights [1994] OJ L 227/1 as amended by Council Regulation (EC) 2506/95 of 25 October 1995 [1995] OJ L 258/3.

  148. 148.

    See about the Plant Variety Law Leßmann and Würtenberger (2009).

  149. 149.

    Garbe (2012), ch 28 recital 41.

  150. 150.

    Beirat für Biodiversität und Genetische Ressourcen beim Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz (2010), p. 12.

  151. 151.

    See in detail about patents and animals Ischebeck (2015).

  152. 152.

    Beirat für Biodiversität und Genetische Ressourcen beim Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz (2010), p. 13; but see for further requirements Directive 98/44/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 July 1998 on the legal protection of biotechnological inventions [1998] OJ L 213/13, art 5 no 3 and § 1 (4) German Patent Law.

  153. 153.

    See about the EU Biotechnology Directive e.g. Van Overwalle (2003), p. 145 ff.

  154. 154.

    See also According to Article 52 (1) EPC European patents shall be granted for any inventions, in all fields of technology, given that they are new, involve an inventive step and are susceptible to industrial application.

  155. 155.

    According to § 1 (1) German Patent Law: Patents are granted for inventions in all fields of technology, provided that they are new, involve an inventive step and are susceptible of industrial application.

  156. 156.

    Beirat für Biodiversität und Genetische Ressourcen beim Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz (2010), p. 18.

  157. 157.

    Beirat für Biodiversität und Genetische Ressourcen beim Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz (2010), p. 21.

  158. 158.

    See the problem on the international level between the TRIPS-Agreement and the CBD.

  159. 159.

    https://www.bmel.de/DE/Tier/Nutztierhaltung/Biopatente/_texte/Biopatente.html#doc4561264bodyText3. Accessed 26 June 2017.

  160. 160.

    https://www.bmel.de/DE/Tier/Nutztierhaltung/Biopatente/_texte/Biopatente.html#doc4561264bodyText3. Accessed 26 June 2017.

  161. 161.

    See e.g. Council Directive 94/28/EC of 23 June 1994 laying down the principles relating to the zoo technical and genealogical conditions applicable to imports from third countries of animals, their semen, ova and embryos, and amending Directive 77/504/EEC on pure-bred breeding animals of the bovine species [1994] OJ L 178/66.

  162. 162.

    Seed Trade Act of 16 July 2004 (BGBl I, p. 1673), last amended by art. 1 of the Act of 20 December 2016 (BGBl I, p. 3041).

  163. 163.

    See for the subsequent Bundesministerium für Ernährung und Landwirtschaft (2015).

  164. 164.

    See http://ec.europa.eu/food/plant/plant_propagation_material/legislation/specific_legislation/index_en.htm. Accessed 7 February 2017.

  165. 165.

    See § 1 Seed Trade Act.

  166. 166.

    Bundesministerium für Ernährung und Landwirtschaft (2015).

  167. 167.

    http://www.bmel.de/DE/Landwirtschaft/Foerderung-Agrarsozialpolitik/GAK/_Texte/GAKEinfuehrung.html;jsessionid=152B1EA9DA55FBD997112EAD6CFF9E30.2_cid367. Accessed 7 February 2017; Bundesministerium für Ernährung und Landwirtschaft (2014).

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    https://www.bmel.de/SharedDocs/Pressemitteilungen/2015/133-SC-ELER.html. Accessed 7 February 2017.

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    Regulation (EU) 1305/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 December 2013 on support for rural development by the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD) and repealing Council Regulation (EC) 1698/2005 [2013] OJ L 347/487.

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    http://www.lallf.de/Genetische-Ressourcen.574.0.html. Accessed 7 February 2017.

  171. 171.

    http://www.genres.de/kultur-und-wildpflanzen/foerdermassnahmen/. Accessed 7 February 2017.

  172. 172.

    http://www.mlul.brandenburg.de/sixcms/detail.php/bb1.c.374948.de. Accessed 7 February 2017.

  173. 173.

    Bundesministerium für Ernährung und Landwirtschaft (2015), p. 19.

  174. 174.

    Bundesministerium für Ernährung und Landwirtschaft (2015), p. 19.

  175. 175.

    https://www.bfn.de/0304_cbd.html. Accessed 24 March 2017.

  176. 176.

    See for the protruding part. http://www.genres.de/kultur-und-wildpflanzen/rahmenbedingungen/zugang/. Accessed 7 February 2017.

  177. 177.

    Regulation (EU) 511/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 April 2014 on compliance measures for users from the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization in the Union [2014] OJ L 150/59; this draft integrates itself in the environmental goals stated by Article 191 TFEU and relies on the legal basis of Article 192 TFEU, for questions concerning the jurisdiction of the Union see Härtel (2014b), § 6, p. 503 and concerning legislation in the European Union Härtel (2012a), § 82, p. 63; Härtel (2012b), § 86, p. 317.

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    https://www.bfn.de/. Accessed 7 February 2017.

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    https://www.bfn.de/23830.html.

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    https://www.bfn.de/23830.html.

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    Bavarian Animal Breeding Act of 10 August 1990 (GVBl p. 291), last amended by § 1 No. 383 Reg on the Adaption of State Law to the current distribution of business responsibility of 22 July 2014 (GVBl p. 286).

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    State Department of Government Information (2012). http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2012-12/31/content_2750.htm. Accessed 6 February 2017.

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    See about this http://www.un.org/esa/agenda21/natlinfo/countr/china/inst.htm. Accessed 6 February 2017.

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    http://www.un.org/esa/agenda21/natlinfo/countr/china/inst.htm. Accessed 6 February 2017.

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    Ministry of environmental protection of the People’s Republic of China on the issuance of “National Species Resource Conservation and Utilization Plan”. http://www.zhb.gov.cn/gkml/zj/wj/200910/t20091022_172479.htm. Accessed 6 February 2017.

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    Ren (2006), p. 5.

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    For purposes of this Law, seeds mean the materials for planting or propagating crops and forest trees, including grains, fruits, roots, stems, seedlings, sprouts and leaves.

  189. 189.

    Law of the People’s Republic of China on Science and Technology Progress adopted at the Second Meeting of the Standing Committee of the Eighth National People’s Congress on July 2, 1993 and amended at the 31st Meeting of the Standing Committee of the Tenth National People’s Congress on December 29, 2007.

  190. 190.

    Crop germplasm, forest germplasm, wild plant germplasm, medicinal plant germplasm, domestic animal germplasm, wildlife germplasm and agricultural microbial germplasm.

  191. 191.

    http://en.pkulaw.cn/display.aspx?cgid=9155&lib=law. Accessed 6 February 2017.

  192. 192.

    Including forest, grassland, desert, wetlands, oceans and other natural ecosystem protection; species resource investigation, cataloguing, database construction and protection on rare and endangered species; invasive species prevention and ecological risk assessment of transgenic organisms.

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    The Ministry of Environmental Protection of China (2014). https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/cn/cn-nr-05-en.pdf. Accessed 21 March 2017.

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    Ministry of Environmental Protection, Natural Ecology. http://jcs.mep.gov.cn/hjzl/zkgb/2012zkgb/201306/t20130606_253396.htm. Accessed 6 February 2017.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. European University Viadrina Frankfurt (Oder), Public Law, Administrative, European, Environmental, Agricultural and Food Law, Faculty of Law, Frankfurt (Oder), Germany

    Christina Flaskühler

  2. Agricultural University of Hebei, College of Economic and Trade, Hebei Sheng, China

    Xinhui Yu

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  1. Christina Flaskühler
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  2. Xinhui Yu
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Correspondence to Christina Flaskühler .

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  1. Faculty of Law, European University Viadrina Frankfurt (Oder), Frankfurt (Oder), Germany

    Ines Härtel

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Flaskühler, C., Yu, X. (2018). Genetic Resources Law. In: Härtel, I. (eds) Handbook of Agri-Food Law in China, Germany, European Union. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67666-1_4

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67666-1_4

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