Abstract
Music is often invoked as the “glue” that unites people like little else, perennial symbol of a composite culture disrupted by the rupture of Partition. Such a simplistic perspective, however, rides roughshod over the complex trajectories musicians’ lives took post-1947. While we know of the broader shifts in the twentieth-century musical landscape of South Asia, we lack a comprehensive account of the repercussions of this cataclysm on the quotidian lives of the subcontinent’s musicians. We have to rely instead on superficial celebrations of music as a means of building unity and on assumptions about what came before Partition. However, if we closely examine the life stories and views of a handful of musicians, we find that examples of ‘Punjabiyat’ accompany instances of prejudice. The relationship of musicians to Partition and to religious difference is complex and at times contradictory, eluding simple characterisations. In this paper, I wish to examine, in preliminary terms, the impact of India’s Partition on practitioners of Hindustani classical music belonging to the region of Punjab. How did Punjabi musicians view the 1947 borders through time, and how have they worked to negotiate these boundaries? I explore the views of a handful of musicians like Pt. Ramakant Sharma (Jalandhar), and the late Md. Hafeez Khan Talwandiwale (Lahore), based on ethnographies conducted in Pakistani and Indian Punjab (Basra 1996, Kapuria 2012). While casteist views (with a longer genealogy going back to the nineteenth century) on the mirasis (Punjab’s hereditary caste of musician-genealogist bards), ironically serve to unite musicians across the border, other, communally hostile inflections reveal Partition’s divisive impact. Second, how have musicians relentlessly traversed one of the most militarised borders in the world? Through a case study of some prominent Punjabi musicians, e.g. Bade Ghulam Ali Khan and Iqbal Bano, among others, I demonstrate how processes of musical tutelage and pedagogy, as well as the more mundane reasons of kinship, have worked to consistently subvert, since at least the 1950s, the ‘hard’ borders engendered by Partition. I argue for a curious ‘double nostalgia’ in the case of Punjab’s musicians, and resituate them as historical agents, functioning in diverse contexts. I thus critique their easy romanticisation as carriers of a ‘syncretic’ phenomenon that defies analysis.
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Notes
- 1.
For a representative example, see Varun Soni, “India, Pakistan and the Musical Gurus of Peace,” Huffington Post, 14 June 2010, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/varun-soni/india-pakistan-and-the-mu_b_606870.html. Accessed 2 May 2017.
- 2.
This idea is derived from the IMR Distinguished Lecture Series on “The Musical Citizen” delivered by Martin Stokes, especially the first lecture on “How Musical is the Citizen?,” at the Senate House, University of London, 4th May 2017. See http://www.the-imr.uk/distinguished-lecture-series/. Accessed 1 May 2017. Stokes focussed on the debates around citizenship which music has been meshed with, building on scholarship across disciplines such as sociology, philosophy, anthropology and ethnomusicology; ranging from Aihwa Ong’s concept of “flexible citizenship” (1999) in globalised, transnational times, to Hannah Arendt’s critique of citizenship under totalitarian regimes (1951). See Aihwa Ong, Flexible Citizenship: The Cultural Logics of Transnationality (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1999); Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York: Harcourt Brace and Company, 1951).
- 3.
Michael Nijhawan, “Punjab’s Dhadi Tradition: Genre and Community in the Aftermath of Partition,” Indian Folklife 3, no. 4 (October 2004): 5–7; see 7.
- 4.
Virinder Kalra, Sacred and Secular Musics: A Postcolonial Approach (London: Bloomsbury, 2014), 16.
- 5.
Ibid., 137. He also notes that, mainly on account of their ascriptive identity as Muslims, the “remaining rababis in East Punjab no longer found patronage in gurdwaras and had to engage in the emerging state-sponsored folk art, with an emphasis on Sufi texts that were seen as part of a distant folk culture.” Ibid.
- 6.
Saeed Malik, The Musical Heritage of Pakistan (Islamabad: Idara Saqafat-e-Pakistan, 1983); Yousuf Saeed, “Fled Is That Music,” India International Centre Quarterly 35, no. 3/4, the Great Divide (Winter 2008–Spring 2009): 238–249.
- 7.
For more on Paluskar, see Janaki Bakhle, Two Men and Music: Nationalism in the Making of an Indian Classical Tradition (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2005). With the assertion of a monolithic Sikh identity in the late nineteenth century, music was also defined anew. See Bob van der Linden, Music and Empire in Britain and India: Identity, Internationalism, and Cross-Cultural Communication (New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), Chap. 5 on “Sikh Sacred Music: Identity, Aesthetics, and Historical Change,” 129–156.
- 8.
Barring the work of Yousuf Saeed, there has been little scholarly or sustained engagement on this theme. In 2008, along with Prof. Lakshmi Subramanian, Saeed co-organised a 2-day workshop in August 2008, on “Hindustani Music and Partition” at New Delhi’s Jamia Millia Islamia, where musicians and musicologists from India, Pakistan and beyond participated. For details see http://ektara.org/workshop08.html. Accessed 14 May 2017.
- 9.
In contrast, there is a vast and proliferating literature detailing the impact of Partition on the literature, cinema and intellectual life of South Asia. For a representative and concise example, see Meenakshi Mukherjee, “Dissimilar Twins: Residue of 1947 in the Twenty-First Century,” Social Semiotics 19, no. 4 (December 2009): 441–451.
- 10.
Madan Gopal Singh has recounted to the author his early childhood memories of growing up in Amritsar, being able to tune in and listen to Radio Lahore, evoking how the idea of “Punjabiyat” in a broader “radio republic,” as it were, that integrates and subverts the border, re-connecting people. On Punjabiyat, see Alyssa Ayres, “Language, the Nation, and Symbolic Capital: The Case of Punjab,” The Journal of Asian Studies 67, no. 3 (August 2008): 917–946; Pritam Singh, “The idea of Punjabiyat.” Himal Southasian 23, no. 5 (2010): 55–57; and “Introduction: Punjab in History and Historiography,” in Punjab Reconsidered: History, Culture, and Practice, ed. Anshu Malhotra and Farina Mir (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2012), xv–lviii.
- 11.
See Anjali Gera-Roy, Bhangra Moves: Bhangra Moves: From Ludhiana to London and Beyond (London: Ashgate, 2010), 22, 55, 72–75.
- 12.
Joya Chatterji, The Spoils of Partition: Bengal and India, 1947–1967 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 111. On the nature of Partition-induced migrations in Bengal, see chap. 3, “Partition and Migration: Refugees in West Bengal, 1947–1967,” 105–158. Chatterji demonstrates how the bulk of East Bengali Hindu peasants migrated much later, in the wake of communal conflagrations beginning in 1949.
- 13.
Kalra notes the connections between folk and classical in post-1947 Punjab, while noting the almost exclusive patronage of folk music in the Indian Punjab. Kalra, Sacred, 134–146.
- 14.
Ibid., 134–135.
- 15.
While colonialism surely changed the ways in which Hindustani art (or Classical) music was perceived and organised in South Asia, it would be erroneous to assume that the binary between Classical and Folk, or Margi and Desi music was thoroughly a product of colonial modernity, as the assumption seems to be in Kalra. For a good summary of these debates, see Katherine Butler Schofield, “Reviving the Golden Age again: ‘Classicization’, Hindustani Music, and the Mughals,” Ethnomusicology 54 (2010): 484–517.
- 16.
See my in-progress PhD thesis (expected June 2018). I wish to build on recent literature on the social histories of music in other regions, e.g. the recent PhD theses of Richard D. Williams and Sharmadip Basu on Bengal. For Rajasthan, see Daniel Neuman, Shubha Chadhuri, and Komal Kothari, Bards, Ballads, and Boundaries: An Ethnographic Atlas of Music Traditions in West Rajasthan (Oxford: Seagull Books, 2006); and more recently, Shalini Ayyagiri, “Spaces Betwixt and Between: Musical Borderlands and the Manganiyar Musicians of Rajasthan,” Asian Music 43, no. 1 (Winter/Spring 2012): 3–33.
- 17.
Yousuf Saeed, “Jugalbandi: Divided Scores,” Himal SouthAsian, February 2011, http://old.himalmag.com/component/content/article/3607-divided-scores.html. Accessed 30 June 2016.
- 18.
Heidi Pauwels, Cultural Exchange in Eighteenth-Century India: Poetry and Paintings from Kishangarh (Berlin: EB Verlag, 2015).
- 19.
Sumanta Banerjee, The Parlour and the Streets: Elite and Popular Culture in Nineteenth Century Calcutta (Calcutta: Seagull Books, 1989); Anindita Ghosh, Power and Print: Popular Publishing and the Politics of Language and Culture in a Colonial Society, 1778–1905 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006).
- 20.
See the commemorative event held at SOAS, London on 6 Sept 2016, titled “250 Years of Waris Shah’s Heer,” where speakers included Amarjit Chandan, Mahmood Awan, Madan Gopal Singh, Nur Sobers-Khan, and Navtej Purewal: https://www.soas.ac.uk/south-asia-institute/events/heritage-and-history-in-south-asia/06sep2016-250-years-of-waris-shahs-heer.html. Accessed 11 May 2017.
- 21.
Vazira Zamindar, The Long Partition and the Making of Modern South Asia (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007).
- 22.
Katherine Butler Brown, “The Social Liminality of Musicians: Case Studies from Mughal India and Beyond,” Twentieth-Century Music 3 (2007): 13–49.
- 23.
I am grateful to Anne Murphy for this insight.
- 24.
In the western context, see Morag Josephine Grant, “Music and Human Rights,” in The Sage Handbook of Human Rights, ed. Anja Mihr and Mark Gibney, vol. 1 (Los Angeles/London/New Delhi/Singapore/Washington, DC: Sage, 2014).
- 25.
Khalid Basra, “‘A Garland of razors’: The Life of a Traditional Musician in Contemporary Pakistan” (unpublished PhD dissertation, SOAS, January 1996), 320, Emphasis added.
- 26.
“The Sikh patron Sardar Harcharan Singh provided the family with a large house, and was also responsible for supplying them with grain, vegetables, milk, etc. Other pupils like the Hindu barrister Amarnath were also lavish patrons of the family.” Ibid.
- 27.
See Basra, “A Garland,” 128–129, for an account of this. He quotes from the Public Relations Directorate Radio Pakistan which goaded Pakistani musicians to “draw inspiration from the music of other Muslim countries,” and lauded the efforts of those composers who created “compositions based on Arabic and Iranian music forms.”
- 28.
Malti Gilani and Qurratulain Haidar, Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan “Sabrang”: His Life and Music (New Delhi: Harman Publishing House, 2003).
- 29.
Basra, “A Garland,” 325.
- 30.
Radha Kapuria, “Rethinking Musical Pasts: The Harballabh Music Festival of Punjab,” Social Scientist 43, no. 5–6 (May–June 2015): 77–91. In his otherwise valuable book, Virinder Kalra erroneously claims that the Harballabh had undergone a process of nationalisation and religious revival prior to the arrival of Paluskar, when, in fact, the evidence points to the contrary. Kalra, Sacred, 61. As I have demonstrated in my MPhil thesis, Paluskar’s visits to the Harballabh (among other reasons) were the prime motivating factor that impelled the organisers to change the character of the festival from a fair to a concert resembling those organised in metropoli like Lahore, Bombay and Calcutta.
- 31.
Kapuria, “Muse for Music,” 99–103.
- 32.
For a more detailed account of Paluskar’s reception in Punjab, see James Kippen, Gurudev’s Drumming Legacy (London: Ashgate, 2006), 24–26. For a more general account on Paluskar, apart from Bakhle’s seminal work, see Michael David Rosse, “The Movement for the Revitalization of ‘Hindu’ Music in Northern India, 1860–1930: The Role of Associations and Institutions” (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1995).
- 33.
Fateh Ali-Amanat Ali made their first spectacular debut in Lahore in 1945, thanks to the sponsorship of Pt. Jeevan Lal Matto, Program Executive of the All India Radio in the city. Matto was also the man responsible for spotting the musical talent in a young Mohammed Rafi, who was working at a barber’s shop in Lahore, and encouraging him to sing on Radio.
- 34.
Interview with Ashwini Kumar dated 2 Feb 2013.
- 35.
Anecdote narrated by Jalandhar-based musician Mohan Malsiani in an interview dated 19 Oct 2011. Malsiani recounted listening in rapt attention, as a young man, to the qawwalis they performed in the saint’s honour.
- 36.
Interview dated 24 Oct 2011, in Kapuria, “A Muse for Music,” 300–320.
- 37.
In this regard, the eminent Pakistani musicologist and inventor of the Sagar Veena, Raza Kazim—who migrated in 1947 from Lucknow—argued in a 2009 interview with filmmaker Yousuf Saeed that despite the veneer of state patronage, classical music in India was not doing well either. See Yousuf Saeed, Khayal Darpan: ‘A Mirror of Imagination’ (New Delhi: Ektara, 2007).
- 38.
Basra, “A Garland,” 101.
- 39.
Ibid.
- 40.
Ibid., 111–112. More references to the ignominies of being a mirasi are found on 113; and 208–211.
- 41.
“Sikh Memorandum to the Punjab Boundary Commission,” in Select Documents on the Partition of the Punjab 1947, ed. Kirpal Singh (New Delhi: National Book Shop, 1991), 226–263.
- 42.
This was not necessarily the view of all Sikhs in Punjab.
- 43.
I borrow this translation from Saeed, “Fled Is That Music,” 2009, 242.
- 44.
There have been successive attempts, in independent India and Pakistan, at subverting the effects on the cultural life of the nation as created by the borders of 1947. The efforts of the Pakistan India People’s Forum for Peace and Democracy (PIPFPD), have, in particular been inspiring. For a more general account of these efforts, see N. Purewal, “The Indo-Pak Border: Displacements, Aggressions and Transgressions,” Contemporary South Asia, 12, no. 4 (2003): 539–556.
- 45.
M.A. Sheikh, Great Masters, Great Music (Bloomington, USA: Xlibris Corporation, 2010).
- 46.
Svetlana Boym, The Future of Nostalgia (New York: Basic Books, 2001), 18.
- 47.
See Roshanara Begum’s PTV “Program Mulaqat” interview by Khalil Ahmad and M. Iqbal: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IjstjdxlVhE. Published 12 September 2015; Accessed 14 November 2017.
- 48.
Regula Burckhardt Qureshi, “In Search of Begum Akhtar: Patriarchy, Poetry, and Twentieth-Century Indian Music,” The World of Music 43, no. 1, Ethnomusicology and the Individual (2001): 97–137.
- 49.
Boym, Future, 27.
- 50.
Ibid., 26.
- 51.
See Churnjeet Mahn’s chapter in this volume on the Aam Khas Bagh complex in Sirhind.
- 52.
Ganesh Das, Early Nineteenth Century Panjab: From Ganesh Das’s “Char Bagh-i-Panjab,” trans. Grewal and Banga (Amritsar: Guru Nanak Dev University, 1975), 139.
- 53.
Boym, Future, 26.
- 54.
The Maharaja’s marriage with Moran brought his way severe opposition from the orthodoxy: he was summoned to the Akal Takht and awarded the punishment of a hundred lashes, which he apparently went forth to receive valiantly. H.R. Gupta, History of the Sikhs, Vol. V: The Sikh Lion of Lahore (Maharaja Ranjit Singh, 1799–1839) (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1991), 35. For more, see chap. 1 on “Musicians and Dancers in Pre-Colonial Punjab, with a focus on Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s Court,” in Radha Kapuria (in-progress PhD, expected June 2018), “Music in Colonial Punjab: A Social History,” King’s College London.
- 55.
See chap. 2 “A Genealogy of the Mirasis and Kanjris in Colonial Punjab,” in my in-progress PhD.
- 56.
Anil Sethi’s research excavated the shift from the secular to the religious in naming practices in 19th century Punjab, Sethi, “The Creation,” 66–71. On the practices, e.g. ritual and public mourning among others, shared by women across religious boundaries in Punjab, see Anshu Malhotra, Gender, Caste and Religious Boundaries: Restructuring Class in Colonial Punjab (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2002).
- 57.
For the proactive uses of music in current-day peacebuilding in Palestine, see Yara El-Ghadban and Kiven Strohm, “The Ghosts of Resistance: Dispatches from Palestinian Art and Music,” in Palestinian Music and Song: Expression and Resistance Since 1900, ed. Moslih Kanaaneh, Stig-Magnus Thorsén, Heather Bursheh, and David A. McDonald (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2013), 175–200.
- 58.
Munshi Muhammad Karam Imam Khan, Ma’dan al-musiqi (Lucknow: Hindustani Press, 1925), 111–116; quoted in Tellings and Texts: Music, Literature and Performance in North India, ed. Francesca Orsini and Katherine Butler Schofield (Cambridge: Open Book Publishers, 2015), 26–27.
- 59.
I am grateful to Ayyub Auliya, the London-based independent music historian, for sharing with me this anecdote—that he read in an Urdu translation of a collection of essays by B.R. Deodhar.
- 60.
Ustad Bundu Khan hailed from a Rajasthani family that later settled in Delhi. His uncle and guru, Ustad Mamman Khan was connected to the Patiala tradition and court. See Daniel Neuman, The Life of Music in North India: The Organisation of an Artistic Tradition (New Delhi: Manohar, 1980), 156; Regula Qureshi, Master Musicians of India: Hereditary Sarangi Players Speak (New York: Routledge, 2007), 185.
- 61.
See Neuman, Life, 157. According to Amal Das Sharma, Ustad Chand Khan served as court musician at the Patiala court from 1913–1937. Amal Das Sharma, Musicians of India (Calcutta: Noya Prokash, 1993).
- 62.
Bonnie C. Wade, Imaging Sound: An Ethnomusicological Study of Music, Art, and Culture in Mughal India (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1990), 116–117.
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Kapuria, R. (2018). Music and its Many Memories: Complicating 1947 for the Punjab. In: Mahn, C., Murphy, A. (eds) Partition and the Practice of Memory. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64516-2_2
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