Overview (Dr. Kelley A. Conrad)

Diversity management is growing steadily as the Internet and global communications have been clearly increasing the role of multicultural factors in many environments. Awareness and appreciation of diversity vary according to cultural milieu. What is effective in one culture can be counterproductive in another. Understanding diversity parameters and developing effectiveness with them can help individuals and organizations create strategies that support culturally appropriate diversity and enhance productivity.

Yukl (2010) described the need of managers to be effective leaders in different cultures as a “difficult but important responsibility” in this century. This importance has also been recognized by the emergence of cross-cultural research known as holo-cultural studies (Kinzer and Gillies 2009). Our research-based knowledge of cross-cultural effects is still limited. In a comprehensive review of “Cross-cultural and Global Issues in Organizational Psychology,” Erez (2011) noted the issues of cross-cultural influences in organizations are underrepresented in research literature. Today, managers are often part of multinational organizations (MNOs) and integrated in virtual and face-to-face multicultural teams (MCTs). These roles require managers to develop shared meaning systems that overcome geographical and cultural differences. Erez identified three important perspectives considered in cross-cultural studies: the multilevel model of culture (Hofstede 1980, 2001; de Mooij and Hofstede 2010), the cross-cultural comparisons of the dimensions describing two or more cultures (House et al. 2004; Schwartz 1992, 1994), and the broad global and multicultural focus on social entities and multigovernmental organizations (Brunsson and Jacobsson 2000; Drori 2006; Erez and Drori 2009; Meyer 2002). In the conclusion to Erez’s chapter, the author proposed:

… that cultures are converging at the global level but maintaining their uniqueness at the national and local levels. Underneath the surface of globalization, there is high variance in cultural values, histories, political regimes, religions, and external physical and climatic conditions that differentiate among cultures and require different patterns of cultural adaptation. Therefore, people are likely to live in more than one cultural sphere, and to do this they are likely to use more than one language, more than one code of behaviors, and more than one social identity. (p. 841)

This chapter will explore co-cultural diversity in terms of continental specifics with contributions from residents in South Africa , India , Germany , Mexico , and the USA . Key variables explored will be historical perspectives, commitment to the organization, perceptions of fairness and respect, and frustrations in the work environment. Understanding of, respect for, and positive incorporation of ideas from diverse cultures around the world while remaining flexible in approach and oriented toward people can support improved workplace and social dynamics.

South Africa (Dr. Herman van Niekerk)

South Africa provides an interesting perspective into a study of diversity management . The motivation for diversity management is largely driven by globalization, the subsequent demands of an expanding multicultural workforce, and to a lesser extent the need for innovation. However, the necessity for diversity management in South Africa was not so much driven by globalization as by political pressure and labor laws which were introduced during the last 20 years. The country has several different ethnic groups, which the late President Nelson Mandela referred to as the rainbow nation . The country has eleven official languages, and although English is the dominant language used in the business environment, Afrikaans is also prominent in specific regions of the country.

This mixture of languages and cultures had its origin more than 300 years ago, when the first Europeans settled in the Cape of Good Hope to establish a halfway station between Europe and the Far East. The original settlers were Dutch which were later joined by French Huguenots and Germans, who fled religious persecution in Europe. The early years of trade with the Eastern countries and the importation of slaves from Malaysia during the late 1600s defined the beginning of the diversity that exists today in South Africa . Furthermore, in the early 1900s, many laborers were brought from India to work on the sugar plantations of the country’s east coast. This potpourri of different nationalities, complemented by the four major African ethnic groups in the country, made up the population of the country today known as South Africa .

In 1994, the country made a peaceful transition to a fully democratic and socially integrated society after nearly 30 years of social and political struggles. Although the political dispensation provided the legal basis for a multicultural and integrated society, huge changes were required to ensure a fully inclusive business environment. Businesses had to adapt quickly to the new reality of a workforce that had to be increasingly diverse. Subsequently, with the emergence of legal requirements such as Affirmative Action (AA) and Black Economic Empowerment (BEE), significant demands were placed on diversity management to ensure that an integrated, multicultural workforce become optimally productive and to maintain a competitive advantage.

Diversity Management and Competitiveness

The question that remains to be asked is what impact diversity management had on competitiveness during the last twenty years with the implementation of the various laws mentioned in the previous paragraph? One way to answer it is by referring to the data from the Competitive Business Reports, published by the World Economic Forum (WEF).

Those studies have been published since 1979, ranking the competitiveness of countries based on predetermined criteria. During the last twenty years, the report has become increasingly more sophisticated and the measurement criteria have been refined over time. Initial reports only considered a couple of competitive criteria, which were used to determine the Business Competitive Index (BCI). Since the early 2000s, the report has used seven competitive drivers, or pillars, which have been increased to twelve drivers in the latest reports. These twelve pillars were further refined to include specific indicators that are used to determine the competitive nature and capability of nations.

A comparative analysis of the WEF reports, over a 20-year period, had clearly showed that South Africa’s competitiveness has fallen nearly 20 positions, from being ranked at number 29 in 1998 to number 49 in 2014/2015. These overall data are reflected in Fig. 1.1. During this time, the WEF also increased the number of countries from an initial 101 in 1998 to 140 in 2015. Admittedly, while there are 12 key pillars of overall competitiveness , as indicated by the World Economic Forum data, the following factors may directly and indirectly be related to diversity management and labor force practice. To understand how diversity management relates to competitiveness and organizational commitment and workplace frustrations, the following four criteria were pulled from the WEF reports, namely: (1) Pay and Productivity, (2) Brain drain, (3) Nature of competitive advantage, and (4) Availability of Scientists and Engineers.

Fig. 1.1
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South Africa’s global competitiveness ranking 1998–2015

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The Fig. 1.2 presents data related to the four individual criteria. Fluctuations in three of those four drivers show a spike in 2009–2010. In contrast, the “Pay and Productivity” driver shows a sharp rise and South Africa has dropped 33 places in pay and productivity competitiveness in global terms, ranking now 127 out of 140 countries. Considering that the country’s overall competitiveness dropped 20 places and is now ranked in position 120 out of 140 countries, a question should be raised: How effective was diversity management in this situation?

Fig. 1.2
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Key drivers of competitiveness in South Africa 2006–2015

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Political reality and necessities in South Africa required companies to commit themselves too quickly to a more diverse workforce, while not necessarily having the necessary skills and training to meet job requirements. Richard et al. (2003) found that the impact of workforce racial diversity on organizational performance is linked to the type of strategy, which is followed, and may not necessarily have a simple direct positive or negative relationship. In South Africa’s case, the strategy was mostly defined to meet legal and labor requirements and affirmative action targets. This can be clearly seen in the significant drops that were experienced in the availability of engineers and scientists between 2006 and 2010. This is a time when many engineers opted to leave the country as part of the brain drain that occurred.

During this time of tumultuous change, a general perception existed that collaborating and sharing relevant information in an ethnically diverse workforce would have been extremely challenging. Based on the history of the country, it was also believed that high levels of mistrust among the different groups would permeate the environment.

A consultancy study undertaken in one of the major parastatals in the country—in which significant changes were made in terms of Black Economic Empowerment —found that in a sample of over 200 employees, only 14% indicated that they shared knowledge and expertise to a great or very great extent, while 48% indicated that very little sharing was taking place. It was also found that collaboration among employees and different departments was generally low, with only 24% of the sampled individuals indicating that it was great and/or very great. For 38% of the sample, no or very little collaboration was evident. Nearly 86% of the employees indicated that sharing knowledge means no or very little loss of power.

This is a very strong statement by employees that they are willing to share knowledge, but that sharing is not taking place (van Niekerk 2005). Why is that happening? Reasons could be that there is no technological platform available and that no organizational knowledge of management processes, such as After Action Review (AAR), is in place to facilitate information and knowledge sharing. Additional research of these specific issues concluded that employees did not mind sharing their expertise and knowledge, but that they wanted to be remunerated for doing so. It was, thus, not a case of mistrust, but rather a rewarding issue, where employees wanted to be rewarded for their skills and expertise.

Learning, Change, and Reward Structures in a Multicultural Work Environment

The demands of a high-intensity knowledge-based environment characterize current workplaces, in which enhancing the success of workplace learning is the responsibility of both managers and employees (Harteis 2012). In a multicultural business environment, global leaders need, therefore, to improve their interpersonal skills to deal with racial conflict and to create opportunities for individuals and groups to learn and collaborate in the workplace.

van Niekerk (2005) also found that the current organizational climate for effective learning within the sample group was generally at a low level. This held true, even in the presence of positive aspects, such as change acceptance and embracement by employees, existence of performance agreements emphasizing learning and development, and company’s encouragement of lifelong learning by providing tuition reimbursement and other incentives. From these responses, it was clear that employees wanted to be rewarded when sharing knowledge, but that it was not happening, with 75% indicating that no or very few rewards were received and that only 2% responded that this occurred to a great or very great extent.

India (Subodh Simon Karmarkar, MBA)

One needs to view India as a subcontinent more than a country. The social context of diversity and inclusion needs to be understood prior to addressing organizational context with respect to diversity management . India has a distinctly different societal context on diversity than any western or eastern country. With a population of 1.2 billion, the subcontinent is challenged with a plethora of diversity issues, including religion, languages, gender, caste, social disadvantage (e.g., scheduled castes , scheduled tribes , and other depressed classes ), lifestyles (vegetarian versus non-vegetarian), ethnicity, regional background, and age. India is home to most of the world religions, including Hinduism , Islam , Catholicism , Christianity , Judaism , Sikhism , Jainism , and Buddhism . The subcontinent has constitutionally recognized 18 official languages (each listed on paper currency) with over 100 dialects.

Gender inequality remains high, with ancient customs, like dowry payments for marriage. The resulting loss of post-marriage human capital serves as a deterrent for parents to invest in girls’ education and health. Women make up 20% of the workforce. Many opt out of the workforce by age 30, due to societal, family, and personal reasons. Although India has been in the path of becoming an economic powerhouse, religion, caste, and language remain major determinants of social and political organizations.

The government’s continued effort to pass laws protecting the lower end of the class structure has created resentments for the higher caste (typically senior leadership and managers) toward reservation policies and concessions created to allow socially disadvantaged people to enter organizations. Although three sweeping legislations have been passed since 1955, caste stratification philosophy pre-dates, by centuries, any formal affirmative action policy. Different forms of business ownership have different views of cultural diversity and inclusion. Cultural diversity is viewed completely differently in public versus private sectors. Across different industries, within the private sector, trumpeting merit-based hiring to ensure affirmative action has created deep resentments. Larger multinational corporations are taking on more global socially responsible approaches. Although the USA has been credited with diversity management and inclusion concepts, better understanding of managing cultural diversity is gaining traction in IT and knowledge-intensive sectors in India .

Diversity Influences on Commitment to the Organization

The ample social diversity in India impacts learning processes, attitudes, perceptions, and work relations (Rai 2012). In most organizations, leadership views D&I as being embedded in the organizational culture, and as not warranting a formal policy based on social context of the subcontinent’s inherent diversity. One manager stated India has a diverse population, which means a workforce that is inherently tolerant. Several studies (Bartlett et al. 2002; Bjorkman et al. 2008; Rao 2007) suggested that senior leadership’s perception concerning the degree of empowerment of the labor force and the relative value of human resources is positively related to an organization’s diversity strategy. A manager’s background and organizational profile play significant roles in effectively implementing diversity management practices. For example, a female manager will champion a gender-specific promotion platform.

Another factor to consider is the form of business ownership. In India , public sector and private sector firms tend to lag considerably behind both foreign and domestic multinationals in diversity management and inclusion. Younger, entrepreneurial companies are more in tune with diversity management compared to companies with long histories. Companies with long histories are entrenched with cultural forces and lean toward paying more attention to employee’s age and tenure, gender, and social hierarchies, when compared to younger companies, founded on the spirit of entrepreneurship and merit-based reward system.

For small to midsize companies, the ideas of diversity management and inclusion are new. There is a paradox in that individuals from the same city but different castes, languages, or practicing different religions, ride along in public transportation and come together at one workplace; yet there is no awareness in terms of identification or a formalization of diversity policy. In small to midsize sectors, a relationship has not been drawn between diversity management and performance enhancement. New initiatives, like campus recruiting of local talent, are being sure to use recruiters that speak the local language and are familiar with local customs as a good source for regional hiring.

In larger, multinational knowledge-based organizations, such as Infosys, an established, dedicated organization for diversity and inclusion exists. As of 2016, Infosys has a workforce present in all continents. Women make up approximately 32% of the workforce, compared to the national average in India of 20%. Infosys’ vision is to create an inclusive workplace and to leverage diversity for a sustainable competitive advantage. The principles and goals of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights are at the epicenter of its diversity and inclusion strategy. Another idea embraced by Infosys is the “flat world” notion—suggesting that the world is “flat” in the sense that the competitive playing fields of developed economies and emerging economies are leveling; similarly, this concept is applied to diversity and inclusion. Religion, cultural awareness, and language training are provided to enhance staff cohesion and understanding. To support an inclusive environment, the firm and staff have encouraged the creation of organized events with culturally representative groups, which include bringing families and observing customs and rituals of various ethnicities and religions.

Perceptions of Fairness and Respect

India’s information technology and knowledge-intensive services sector has been most of the world’s focus. Large companies (e.g., Infosys, Wipro, Tata, Reliance) with multicontinental presence are demonstrating desire to adopt strategic human resource management practices. Not all private firms are employing strategic HRM thinking in making various business decisions. Several factors influence the adoption of Diversity Management (DM) practices, including senior managers’ characteristics, a company’s strategic intent, and company’s positioning in terms of its product/industrial market and labor market. In cases where an entity maintains a monopolistic position, due to government protection and/or high entry barriers, there is no incentive to adopt progressive HRM practices like DM.

The high-performing culture of information technology typically has a highly educated and younger workforce. Merit-based recruitment and merit-based promotions create an imbalance for the disadvantaged groups (lower castes). The gross underrepresentation occurs due, in part, to underrepresentation in higher education.

One midsize knowledge-based company’s line manager stated he still views topics like diversity management as a HR function and readily admits it is has nothing to do with line management. When an issue crops up, the individuals are sent to HR to resolve the matter. Companies that are embracing strategic diversity management focus on equal opportunities for all. The inherent challenge is how to satisfy diverse individual needs without being perceived as “unfair” by other employees who might demand similar treatment.

Males highly dominate the industrial sector, with only 4% of workforce consisting of women. For women to be equal participants at work, they will need to attain equal partnership in society. Due to the nature of the work, women and other disadvantaged members are not proactively recruited. The banking sector, like IT sector, boasts much higher levels of women in the staffing ratio. Organizations in the banking sector provide gender-specific DM initiatives to accommodate women’s family care commitments.

Frustrations in the Work Environment

For domestic multinational corporations (MNCs), diversity and inclusion policies have become a salient HR strategy for recruiting and retention purposes, as well as for exhibiting corporate socially responsible image of the organization. If a company did not have D&I policies, it could lose talent to competitors; hence, innovations in this area created a competitive advantage. Competitive advantage was short-lived as competitors would easily replicate new ideas. Strategic D&I initiatives not only help with staff recruiting and retention, but also help in getting more clients and work.

The IT and the knowledge-based sectors, known for their younger workforces, face an ongoing challenge specific to generation-related expectations and aspirations. Generation Y employees have different value systems and loyalties, when compared to previous generations. Historically, people would join a company and, perhaps, retire from that company; today, the youth may change jobs as frequently as every six months. Creating an inclusive environment is very difficult. Long-tenured employees are perceived as relics and holding an outdated knowledge base.

Diversity and inclusion strategies specific to gender vary with age. In the IT sector, female participation equals the one in the USA , making up approximately 27% of the workforce. However, there is a huge drop in that percentage when women reach the age of 30 and decide to pursue personal goals, like getting married and raising a family. Voluntarily or involuntarily, women are silently leaving the workforce to pursue expectations placed either by society or family.

Summary

In a country like India , diversity is a way of life, wherein facets of racial, ethnic, religious, and linguistic diversity are incorporated in the social fabric of the subcontinent. Although India has made great strides since the globalization movement and is no longer viewed as spiritual, mystic, and fatalistic, D&I interventions will be necessary to overcome centuries old philosophy of the caste system that remains quietly persistent. The Indian subcontinent has had its own philosophies deeply rooted in traditions, cultural beliefs, and behaviors that dominated its human resource management functions and strategies. Great effort has been made by MNCs in IT sector to reach out to women, underprivileged, and disabled, while progress in other sectors remains to be seen.

Germany (Dr. Susanne Beier, LPC, NCC, NCCC)

In the nineteenth century, Germany , Kaiser Willhelm II defined the role for women as “Kirche, Küche, Kinder” (church, kitchen, children) (German Culture, n.d.). In German society, today, this is considered derogatory. However, for girls growing up in the 1950s this was still engrained. Career opportunities for girls were not discussed or encouraged.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, women began to make more progress in their struggle for equal rights. The Weimar Republic (1919–1933) gave women many freedoms (as compared to the past) and a chance to expand their privileges in German society. The most significant gains at that time were access to secondary education and the right to vote.

Work diversity is an area of interest to this author since, as a child in Germany , she had faced a future without any opportunities for growth in employment or future education. This author grew up in that era and attended German schools until the 6th grade, when she emigrated to the USA with her parents. Prior to leaving for the USA , she was groomed to work in the factory upon completion of the 8th grade, as were her female classmates at the time (German School System, n.d.).

The decisions about female children took place at completion of 4th grade, with a review of academic records and discussion with the parents. The author’s family history was that it was the woman’s duty, first and foremost, to take care of the house and children. Career aspirations were not considered realistic or achievable.

Transitioning from the German school system to the American system was difficult because the author did not speak English when arriving in the USA . At that time, bilingual education or ESOL was not available. Consequently, her academic history was average, including high school years. She was told by the Guidance Counselor that she was “not college material” and should consider being a secretary. Following the plan ingrained from her childhood, she got married at age 20. She had two children and became a single mother at age 28. At that time, there was a local college program available to single mothers, and she entered college for the first time. She attended part-time and graduated college seven years later, continuing her studies on to earn a Masters and a doctorate. While attending college, she worked in a retail setting while working toward professional position, and was offered a volunteer capacity of teacher’s aide in an Alternative School setting. From there, she was offered a permanent teacher’s aide position and earned her teaching certification. She taught at the Alternative School, where she started out as an Aide for three years, and then was offered an opportunity to move over to administration. Three years later, she was the Executive Director. She obtained licensure as a counselor and opened a practice, providing consulting services to corporate relocation clients. When her second husband passed, she closed her practice and accepted an adjunct faculty position at an online university, teaching counseling courses. She was later offered and accepted a full-time faculty position.

Though diversity has not garnered nearly the same attention in Germany as in the USA , recently it is becoming more of an issue. In 2006, Germany passed the General Equal Treatment Act (German Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency 2015), ensuring that employers must make sure discrimination does not take place. To the extent diversity plays a role in Germany , the global market has proven to be a driving force for meeting diversity guidelines in German subsidiaries of American companies. Before 2006, although companies sought advice about what impact diversity plays in Germany, the concept of diversity was unknown. Typically, a flat-out response was diversity does not play a role in Germany , as “it is not needed” (Rehder and Day 2007).

To develop a current perspective of German approaches, the author interviewed six German citizens (three males and three females). Two of the men are entrepreneurs (two private practice engineers), and one owns two restaurants (one in Germany and one in the USA ) and has been a manager in a corporate setting. One of the engineers has a bachelor’s degree in engineering, and the other is a licensed engineer with the equivalent of an associate degree. Two of the women are department managers, one in a retail setting, and one in an office setting in the Customer Service Department. None had clear answers to interview questions discussing diversity at the workplace. As part of the interviews, the author also introduced the topic of the recent influx of refugees in Germany and the possible effects on diversity in the workplace. The answer was, “they will be able to speak German and will work along with the rest of us completing our work assignments.” All participants made statements indicating there was little difference in how the “background of the people and where they came from” affected employment. The conclusion communicated was, “they all know that they just need to do the job. It doesn’t matter who they are. All six stated they expected anyone who worked for or with them, “to carry their workload and get the job done right, no matter who they were or where they came from.” The emphasis with all six interviewees was that the primary focus is on “getting the job done. Period.”

Summary

As Germany continues to experience diversity because of outside influences (Pastel 2006). Specifically, in addition to the 1.1 million Syrian refugees accepted by Germany in 2015, there is also an influx of immigrants from Ireland, Poland, Spain, and other European countries because of labor shortages in their home countries. Some of these adjustments are unwelcome by some Germans, while cheered by others. However, as Germany changes and adapts to the new cultural norms, it is evident diversity will be part of the tapestry of the country.

Mexico (Dr. Francisco Javier Reyes Avila)

Nowadays , globalization has led to a worldwide diversity in different areas, such as economic, political, social, psychological, technological, cultural, and geographical. This has an obvious impact on societies and enterprises. Mexico , a traditional “macho man” country, has gone through some drastic changes. An example of that could be seen, for example, during the national parade in September 2016, when the national armed forces lined, side by side, female and male soldiers as equals. Both genders were represented in key positions in the parade. Regarding the political environment, President Peña Nieto has recently asked to all public candidates to treat females and males as equals. In the economic environment, changes are also clear: The increase in real estate value, the movement of workers into different areas, and the economic development and consequent increase in employment opportunities.

In enterprises, the change is a constant, caused by the evolution in technology, foreign direct investments, movement of labor, and outsourcing . Companies use outsourcing as means to reduce the cost of their products. The low cost of labor in Mexico has been the opportunity for multinational enterprises (MNEs) to do business in this country. In the middle of the 1960s, the Mexican government established the so-called maquiladoras , factories in Mexico run by a foreign company and exporting its products to the country of that company. The maquiladora triggered an increased diversity in Mexico , because country people emigrated to different cities along the border with the USA , namely the states of California , Sonora , Chihuahua , and Tamaulipas , where the maquiladoras were originally concentrated. Now, the maquiladoras have expanded to the entire Mexican territory.

The author has met students who work in maquiladoras in Reynosa and Matamoros, in the state of Tamaulipas, and Saltillo, in the state of Coahuila. They have shared problems with their managers who were expatriates and came from the headquarters of MNEs. These managers arrived speaking their own languages, as if they were at home and demanded locals to understand and speak their languages in the workplace. This was a negative manifestation of diversity and the ethnocentric behavior. Other students who worked in the Human Resources department have reported incidents with LGBT workers that were not accepted in female or male restrooms. In another issue, this one related to religious choice, Muslim employees have a special schedule and need a private space to pray, what create the need for special accommodations. Diversity requires a special attention by enterprises to manage their diverse employees.

The personal and professional interest for the diversity topics as a researcher, and the natural curiosity to search for answers and create a better understanding about this topic in his country, made the author survey several managers of human resources, by asking three questions about diversity:

  1. (1)

    How are diversity management issues understood and managed at workplaces in this country?

    Most executives answered that enterprises are immersed in a process of total renovation of the administrative system; creating an equilibrium concerning gender, religion, education, social class, and different cultural values. The common objective is to develop equal opportunity for all the employees under the values and policies of the enterprise. This includes consideration of the three generations: Baby Boomers , Generation X , and Millennials , currently sharing the workplace. Executives agreed that most companies are approaching diversity with an open mind.

  2. (2)

    To what extent have business organizations in this country developed a strategic approach to managing diversity to enhance their performance?

    Most MNE executives believe there has been a great advance in diversity management . Domestic enterprises are also working on it, but having a slower progress. Mexican domestic enterprises are ruled by the Ley Federal del Trabajo . There exists an enormous gap between real labor diversity and as defined in the law. This is a major challenge. In response to this legal problem, executives are using their creativity and special agreements to address these issues.

  3. (3)

    Are there any differences in the perception between managers and non - managerial employees in the way workforce diversity is and should be managed in their organization?

    Most managers think that there is more awareness of diversity among managers than among non-managerial employees. Some managers attribute this difference in perception to the generational gap. Most managers belong to Baby Boomers generation, while non-managerial employees are mostly Millennials .

Summary

Managers and executives in Mexico have had to change the way they communicate job vacancies, removing sex, age, gender as information required in the applications because asking about them is considered discriminatory. Today, Mexican executives should be more creative in dealing with labor reform, focusing on new ideas, technology, and staying updated on diversity circumstances.

African Americans—Continental USA (Debra Jenkins, MS, MA)

The 40,695,277 African Americans in the continental USA make up 12.6% of the total US population and 12% of the US labor market (US Census 2016). Sixty-two percent of all African Americans are employed with half those in managerial or professional positions (US Bureau of Labor Statistics 2016). Most African Americans reside in the continental states of Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, and North Carolina (US Census 2016). African Americans by 2050 will be less than 15% of the total US population (US Census 2016).

African American perspectives and responses regarding workforce diversity are connected to history in the Continental USA . Most US African Americans have ancestors brought to the Continental USA through the slave trade beginning in 1669. One of the first recorded business managers was an African American manager named Benjamin Thornton Montgomery (Jones et al. 2012). A former slave, Montgomery applied Robert Owen’s business management strategy to plantation management (Jones et al. 2012). Montgomery’s plantation owner recognized his managerial skills and eventually sold him the plantation in 1866 (Jones et al. 2012). African Americans have historically demonstrated a dedicated work ethic, high levels of responsibility, and a strong sense of commitment to the organizations they work in (Jones et al. 2012).

Negative effects from the slave trade remain within society and the workforce today (DeGruy 2005). After the emancipation proclamation, legal efforts were put in place to hinder the education and economic advancement of African Americans . In the twentieth century, African Americans experienced de jure segregation and discrimination based on Jim Crow laws (Parrillo 2013). The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was implemented to eliminate overt discrimination in the workplace that primarily impacted African Americans ; however, continual diversity efforts remain needed to improve how African Americas are treated within the workplace (Bond and Hayes 2014).

Diversity Management Issues

Diversity management issues are multilayered and need to be addressed with intentional efforts. Workplace connectedness both within the community and organizations is one such issue for organizations. Harambee is a Swahili term that means to be connected, all for one, and unified (Ujamaa Family 2009). Kaplin and Lee (2014) recorded accounts of legal issues demonstrating that workplace disconnect and covert discrimination continue to impact “harambee” in the workplace. African American emotional, cognitive, and behavioral well-being, sense of belonging, and safety in the workplace are now being recognized as priorities (Bond and Hayes 2014). Sue (2010) completed a study showing how external hostilities and negative societal messages stemming from isolation, exploitation, and discrimination on the job caused psychological stress, micro-aggressive stress, and stereotype stress.

African Americans experience discrimination and unfair societal treatment, critical factors in diversity management (Bond and Hayes 2014; Darder 1991; McCray 1994; Whaley and Ford 2007). Members of an organization benefit from establishing culturally appropriate relationships with the African American community. Relationships are important when implementing external diversity efforts such as where to post job announcements and how to encourage participation in programming. Pairing with African American community organizations through employee volunteer efforts and philanthropic endeavors can also form connections (Bond and Hayes 2014).

It is important for an organization to connect through internal diversity messaging efforts, including consideration of how current societal events for African Americans impact them outside and within the organization (Aamodt 2007). Darder (1991) found people of color responded to unfair treatment, external hostilities, and negative societal messages in the workplace within four cultural response patterns (alienist , dualist , separatist, and negotiation ). African Americans experiencing negative messages may utilize an alienist response pattern and view their own group as a deficit model. Those using a dualist response pattern may choose to keep work and home cultures separate. The choice to associate only with people most like themselves is an African American separatist response to negative treatment in the work environment. The response pattern that developmentally maintains authentic self and the ability to bridge with those least familiar is a negotiation response pattern. Organizational awareness of the messages can either hinder African American employee desires to manage or remain in non-managerial positions (Tomkiewicz et al. 2001).

Strategic Approaches to Managing Diversity

How diversity is managed within a workplace is essential to an African American non-managerial employee’s sense of belonging and sense of safety (Bond and Hayes 2014). Organizations recognizing a need to create supportive environments for their diverse employees by providing internal and external culturally responsive resources notice a change in messaging about organizational climate (Prasad 2001). Although business organizations are reframing efforts to address what is happening outside and inside of the organization for African Americans , there remains a lot of work to do in the area of climate (Bond and Hayes 2014).

Iwata (2004) believes the difficulty of connecting is due to the focus on executive level or managerial voices instead of the voices of diverse employees. Iwata (2004) recommended that organizations begin their diversity work by understanding the cultural values and perceptions of their non-managerial employees. African Americans have a myriad of values connected to symbolic rituals, customs, and rules (Parrillo 2013). Kwanzaa is one such tradition in the African American community (Karenga 2013). The challenge with the philosophy of incorporating cultural values to manage diversity is that the same ethnic representations are not equally valued by all members of the same group (Parrillo 2013). For examples, see Table 1.1 extracted from Jenkins (2014). These are data from a field study of African American perceptions of and suggestions for management of workforce diversity. The study was based on the seven principles of Kwanzaa (Karenga 2013).

Table 1.1 African American perceptions of and suggestions for management of workforce diversity
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Summary

Culturally responsive messaging on the part of the organization that gauges both external and internal messages African Americans receive is an essential component to diversity management. Such intentional efforts should continue (Bond and Haynes 2014).

Asian Americans—Hawaii, USA (Violet Nxedhlana, MHA)

Hawaii is a multicultural state characterized by different ethnic and cultural groups. Based on the US Census data obtained in 2015, the state of Hawaii consists of a 42.3% Asian American (AA) population as opposed to 4% found in the entire USA (Zhang et al. 2010). However, the term AA is not as commonly used in Hawaii as it is in the mainland. Hawaii uniquely differs from other states because no individual racial or ethnic group can claim a majority in that state (Oliveira et al. 2006). For example, 32% is White, 19% is Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islanders , 2.9% is Black or African American, 1.9% is American Indian and Alaska Native , with 23.6% of all Hawaii residents of multiethnic backgrounds (two or more races) (US Census 2016).

Although the AA population consists of nearly 50 distinct ethnic groups, there is a disregard for that AA diversity (Suh 2008). For example, in some Hawaiian workplaces, racial and ethnic harmony exists within the population groups despite the presence of cultural diversity. Also, the fact that society regards those of Asian origin as a monolithic group, a “model minority,” and one that expects a mutual outcome (Suh 2008), fuels the notion that diversity is not much of a factor among working AAs in Hawaii. AAs in Hawaii, like other Asians, believe in the spirits of their ancestors. Different ethnic groups in Hawaii have faith in the spirit of ohana or family, which symbolizes a family that does not forget or leave anyone behind (Lindo 1980). Ohana is a word that originated from “oha” or the bulb of the taro plant. The plant provides a connection link between the people in Hawaii and the heritage of their people (Lindo 1980). It is not so important how many branches stemmed from the “oha.” Even if people are not closely related, they still relate as brothers and sisters to each other as part of the ohana family.

Commitment to the Organization

Organizational commitment involves an individual’s feeling of loyalty to an institution and an eagerness to exert oneself to enhance a company’s objective (Pennsylvania State University World Campus (PSUWC) 2013). AAs in Hawaii show their dedication by suppressing the needs and desires of each racial group and encouraging cohesiveness within the various subgroups. In addition, AAs show a willingness to fulfill an institution’s goals and interests to help further the welfare of the organization. Different AA subgroups display a strong sense of commitment to the institution. The AA workforce in Hawaii does not create a workplace environment where one race has superiority over another. Rather, it seems that ethnicity does not matter as subgroup concerns take precedence over individual cultural desires and rights. Even the word AA is rarely used in Hawaii or by the Hawaiian workforce.

Hawaii organizations embrace the cultural diversity and inclusion views that bring in work experiences and diverse perspectives. Promoting and hiring individuals with different cultural backgrounds also help in establishing a collaborative work environment that creates business value and a way for AA employees in Hawaii to achieve their full potential. However, in some rare cases, AA workers demonstrate less commitment toward their organization because of low levels of trust in management caused by unfair work practices. Such instances include occasions where some employees are not respected or valued for their contributions.

Perceptions of Fairness and Respect

“Aloha” is a spirit of love in Hawaii that accepts and welcomes everyone and treats different ethnic groups with respect. The aloha spirit is no exaggeration; it is real in the Hawaiian workplace. Management values and promotes cultural diversity in its workforce and thrives to treat all ethnic groups with consistency and impartiality. Wood (1993) stated that to show respect for others does not mean one must personally accept someone’s point of view. Instead, respect surpasses sheer tolerance and gets to a point where one admires someone for doing a good job that they were not capable of doing or would do. AAs in Hawaii feel that cultural diversity is a non-issue, because ethnic groups show mutual respect based on the unique skills and capabilities of all ethnic groups, rather than race or culture. Although management does not show cultural bias toward its treatment of the AA population, it still demonstrates unfair practices such as failure to listen and engage some of its employees, whether AA or non-AA, leading to a failure in responding to their needs.

Frustrations in the Work Environment

In Hawaii, AAs from different backgrounds and ethnicities can work well together and feel accepted in their places of work. Being part of the majority also adds to the ease of acceptance. Although AA workers organize themselves into various ethnic groups, they do so to acknowledge the differences in their culture not to treat each other along racial lines. Cultural bias, institutional discrimination, and stereotyping , often associated with multicultural groups in the workplace, are the least of their worries, because AAs in Hawaii feel that such behaviors hardly exist in their workplaces. AA workers are more frustrated with top management who lack leadership potential and charisma than they are with an ethically diverse workforce. To AAs in Hawaii , workplace diversity fosters creativity and new ideas and establishes an environment in which employees acknowledge each other’s differences.

Afterword (Dr. Kelley A. Conrad)

In past years, the focus of cultural diversity was on the shift in work context from organizations, moving from being local in focus to being international in focus. What formerly worked within one’s own country worked less well when the organization had to operate across international boundaries as co-cultural organizations. Internationalization has been exacerbated by acquisitions of major local companies by foreign firms (in the USA and elsewhere). However, many organizations have been able to cope reasonably well through cultural awareness training and other awareness and sensitivity-related efforts. Then, the Internet happened. By creating a near instantaneous communication network, virtual management of organizations, teams, and individuals quickly became a reality. Today, many organizations find themselves operating in a global work context, often including major parts of their workforces located outside the country of origin. Managers now manage multicultural, virtual teams.

This is a radically changed global environment requiring better shared meaning systems for all parties. We will continue to see the convergence of work cultures; however, individual national and local areas will retain some uniqueness. This uniqueness will require considerable skill from corporations, managers, and employees as they respond to the interplay of global and local work identities and the cultural diversity these will represent.