Abstract
Bogati, Cox, Karki, and Sisk find that Nepal’s post–civil war transition remains turbulent and fragile due to shifting governing coalitions, localized political violence, and, most poignantly, the increase of identity-based politics. Identity differences have a religious and cultural basis in the Hindu caste system and continue to define political loyalties. While civil war has not reignited, Nepal faces continued conflict along identity lines related to historical patterns of exclusion, marginalization, and discrimination. Despite innovative work among international donors engaged in fostering social cohesion, identity-based grievances in Nepal make debates around social transformation, federalism, resource allocation, and democratization vulnerable to highly localized outbreaks of violence. Peacebuilding in Nepal requires a long-term perspective. With major setbacks of the 2015 earthquake and the escalation of conflict around in the Tarai region related to the new constitution, a broad network of domestic and international actors remains committed to re-imagining society and transforming the state.
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Notes
- 1.
Ministry of Peace and Reconstruction and BBC News, Nepal Raises Death Toll, accessible at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8268651.stm, last accessed on December 1, 2013.
- 2.
Kiran Pun, “Ex-Maoist Combatants Join NA,” My Republica, Web edition, November 22, 2012, http://www.myrepublica.com/portal/index.php/news_images/news_rss.php?action=news_details&news_id=45221, accessed on December 11, 2013.
- 3.
Census 2012.
- 4.
CK Lal, Interview with the authors, December 2013.
- 5.
Joint Evaluation of the International Support to the Peace Process in Nepal 2006–2012.
- 6.
Interview with the authors, December 6, 2012.
- 7.
The Panchayat system was a non-party system of councils known as “Panchayat.” The King exercised sole power and nominated people to the upper house as the representatives to the lower house were elected.
- 8.
Anne De Sales 2003. See also, O. Skar Herald, “The Myths of Origin: The Janajati Movement, Local Traditions, Nationalism and Identities in Nepal,” Contributions to Nepalese Studies 22, no. 1 (January 1995) accessible at: http://www.mtnforum.org/sites/default/files/publication/files/6846.pdf.
- 9.
Interview with the authors.
- 10.
- 11.
Ibid., 61.
- 12.
See Dor Bahadur Bista, “Fatalism and Development: Nepal’s Struggle for Modernization,” 1990.
- 13.
Focus group discussion with the Interfaith Council of Nepal.
- 14.
Interview with the authors.
- 15.
Ibid.
- 16.
Rajendra Maharjan, “Rastriya Ekikaranko Punarkhoj,” in “The Dimensions of Social Good Will” NEMAF 2013. See also, Kalyan Bhakta Mathema, Madheshi Uprising: The Resurgence of Ethnicity (Kathmandu: Mandala Book Point, 2011). See, Tiwari Ruhi and Anirudh Prasad Sah, eds., The Landscape of Madhesh: Politics, Society and Economy of the Plains (Kathmandu: Nepal Madhesh Foundation, 2012).
- 17.
Interview with the authors.
- 18.
Lai Ming Lam, “Land, Livelihood and the Rana Tharu Identity,” http://myrepublica.com/portal/index.php?action=news_details&news_id=63530.
- 19.
Sanskritization denotes the process by which castes placed lower in the caste hierarchy seek upward mobility by emulating the rituals and practices of the upper castes.
- 20.
This analysis arose in interviews with Mie Rosendahl, Krishna Hachchetu, and Martin Stutzinger.
- 21.
The Characteristics of Dalit Intellectuals, Kantipur National Daily, Monday, November 18, 2013.
- 22.
Shakya Mallika, “Nepali Economic History Through the Ethnic Lens: Changing State Alliances with Business Elites,” in Nationalism and Ethnic Conflict in Nepal: Identities Mobilization After 1990, eds., Mahendra Lawoti and Susan Hangen (London, Routledge, 2013).
- 23.
Maharjan Rajendra, “Adhyayan” (Studies), Year 1, No. 1 (Kathmandu: Nepal Madhesh Foundation, 2013).
- 24.
Mahendra Lawoti and Anup K. Pahari, The Maoist Insurgency in Nepal: Revolution in the Twenty-First Century (New York: Routledge, 2010).
- 25.
Prashant Jha, “Why India Must Speak Up Strongly on Nepal,” The Hindustan Times, Web edition September 13, 2015, http://www.hindustantimes.com/analysis/why-india-must-speak-up-strongly-on-nepal/story-M3GXPzzHnxD0IlgBnwzhCI.html.
- 26.
Interview with the authors, December 2013.
- 27.
Ibid.
- 28.
Ibid.
- 29.
See, Bray et al. 2003.
- 30.
Interview with the authors, December 2013.
- 31.
Kiran, “Ex-Maoist Combatants Join NA.”
- 32.
Interviews with the authors, December 2013.
- 33.
Ibid.
- 34.
Ibid.
- 35.
Ibid.
- 36.
Interview with Dharnidhar Koirala, the Secretary of the Ministry of Peace and Reconstruction, Spotlight 6, no. 18 (March 8, 2013). Accessible at: http://www.spotlightnepal.com/News/Article/Ministry-Building-Peace-Khatiwada-
- 37.
- 38.
Interview with the authors, December 13, 2013.
- 39.
Ibid., December 7, 2013.
- 40.
UN, “United Nations Development Assistance Framework for Nepal (2008–2010)” (UN Nepal Information Platform, July 2011), 14, http://www.un.org.np/report/united-nations-development-assistance-framework-nepal-2008-2010-%E2%80%93-evaluation-report.
- 41.
UNDP, Assessment of Development Results: Evaluation of UNDP Contribution in Nepal (Kathmandu: UNDP Nepal, 2012).
- 42.
Interviews with the authors, December 2013.
- 43.
Ibid.
- 44.
Ibid.
- 45.
Ibid.
- 46.
Ibid.
- 47.
Ibid.
- 48.
Religious Leaders dialogue/focus group, December 4, 2012; Interview with the authors, December 2013.
- 49.
Interview with the authors, December 2013.
- 50.
Interview with the authors and Report on LGCDP 2012.
- 51.
Interview with the authors, December 2013.
- 52.
Ibid.
- 53.
Ibid.
- 54.
Ibid.
- 55.
Ibid.
- 56.
Ibid.
- 57.
Ibid.
- 58.
Ibid.
- 59.
Ibid.
- 60.
Ibid.
- 61.
Ibid.
- 62.
Ibid.
- 63.
Ibid.
- 64.
Ibid.
- 65.
Ibid.
- 66.
Ibid.
- 67.
Ibid.
- 68.
Ibid.
- 69.
Later though, the bilateral aid agencies did not use the PDS. Joint Evaluation of the International Support to the Peace Process in Nepal.
- 70.
Including the European Commission, Danish International Development Assistance (DANIDA), UK AID from the Department for International Development, Swiss Agency for Development Cooperation (SDC) and the Embassy of Switzerland in Nepal, Netherlands Development Organization (SNV), Australian Aid, Norwegian Embassy, GIZ, Embassy of Finland, Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and the Association of International NGOs in Nepal (AIN).
- 71.
Interview with the authors, December 2013.
- 72.
Ibid.
- 73.
Ibid.
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Bogati, S., Cox, F.D., Karki, S., Sisk, T.D. (2017). Nepal: Identity Politics in a Turbulent Transition. In: Cox, F., Sisk, T. (eds) Peacebuilding in Deeply Divided Societies . Rethinking Political Violence. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-50715-6_7
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