Keywords

1 Introduction

1.1 MOOCs

MOOCs have opened a new door for learners around the world (Reich 2015). A MOOC is characterized as an online course that is open and free for all who are interested. The European Commission (2014) defines a MOOC as “an online course open to anyone without restrictions (free of charge and without a limit to attendance), usually structured around a set of learning goals in an area of study, often run over a specific period of time (with a beginning and end date) on an online platform which allows interactive possibilities (between peers or between students and instructors) that facilitate the creation of a learning community.” In this open learning environment, MOOCs potentially promote life-long learning and push equitable education for all (Bandalaria and Alfonso 2015).

MOOCs also provide English learners the opportunity to “study abroad,” since students can get access to lectures from English speaking professors at elite universities abroad by using Web technologies. In addition, learners using MOOCs can communicate with the professor, the staff, and other learners in the online community. By integrating MOOCs, learners can transcend time and distance.

MOOCs are categorized into xMOOCs and cMOOCs. Though there are many similarities in both types of MOOCs, xMOOCs are more similar to traditional teaching styles. The instructor takes a lead in designing the syllabus, the way of the instruction and the exams (Conole 2013), and then gives lectures to the audience. Most Japanese MOOCs are of this type. Examples include such global MOOCs as “Artificial Intelligence,” “Machine Learning,” and local MOOCs developed by Kyushu University such as “Global Social Archeology” and “Cyber Security.” On the other hand, cMOOCs are characterized by student-centered learning. Students are encouraged to develop their own learning environment with the support of the instructor (Conole 2013). In these two types of MOOCs, the overall design differs according to each paradigm. However, online communities have distinctive characteristics which have never been seen before.

As MOOCs have been gaining attention, so has the number of studies about MOOCs in the context of language education. Zhang (2016), for example, studied how teachers can encourage students to learn from a MOOC, and found that a different regulatory-focus and different types of advocates yield different levels of motivation in learning with a MOOC. Wu et al. (2014) studied the potentials of how we can analyze, enrich and transform a resource from a large corpus of linguistic material relevant to a specific area.

Barack et al. (2016) researched participants’ motivation to learn by analyzing the impact of language and culture. They compared motivational differences between MOOC participants who studied the same course but in a different language, and they found there was no statistical difference. Unfortunately, in most of the studies, learners’ relationships with English—whether a native speaker of English, an English as a second (ESL) speaker or English as a foreign learner (EFL) speaker—have been neglected or given little attention. English is commonly used for many MOOCs. The language of instruction and the fluency of the learners in the language potentially have an influence on the motivation and the outcome of the learning.

1.2 English Teaching and Learning

English is dominantly used as a language of instruction for MOOCs. English is now a common language among all learners (Barack et al. 2016). Wu et al. (2014) claim that many MOOC learners have a strong desire and motivation to enhance their knowledge of academic English, particularly in the subject area of the course. Not only the knowledge of the subject matter, but the use of English as a communication tool enhances feelings of internationalization and has a positive impact on modernization, which enhances the learners’ experience (Coleman 2006). Since the first language of many MOOC learners is not necessarily English, a number of MOOCs provide subtitles in different languages in order to support nonnative speakers of English (Anzai 2015).

In Japan, the government and educators are keen to nurture Japanese learners who can contribute to the globalizing world. To achieve this goal, English is indispensable as a communication tool. Oka (2016) claims that to be global, students need to develop Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) beyond Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS). The theory was developed by Cummins (2014) and he explains that BICS are the language skills needed in social situations such as daily conversations, whereas CALP refers to formal academic learning including reading, writing, listening and speaking about subject area content material. Oka emphasized that English education needs to enhance CALP based on plurilingualism. MOOCs can be used as excellent learning materials since they are generally lectures from professors at elite universities.

However, there are scarcely any studies which have investigated the dimensions of MOOCs for English learners, in spite of the fact that dimensions are very important in designing and evaluating the learners’ performance. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the dimensions of learning with MOOCs for English learners which have an effect on English proficiency.

2 Method

A pilot study was conducted in the fall of 2014 which implemented a survey consisting of 100 items based on Willingness to Communicate (MacIntyre et al. 1998), Self-efficacy (Bandura 1997), and Openness (Anzai 2011). After carefully examining the results, the items for the main study became 86. The survey of this main study was conducted in the fall to winter of 2014–2015. The participants were 182 Japanese university students in Tokyo from five universities. They responded to computer-scored sheets, and the data were analyzed using SPSS.

3 Results

Exploratory factor analyses were conducted to decide the number of factors. After examining the initial Eigenvalues, the Scree Plot, and applying various rotations, a three factor model turned out to be the most interpretable. A three factor solution accounted for 37 %. The three factors were: Intercultural Communication, Self-efficacy, and Open Learning. With seven items from each factor, MOOCs for English learners were developed.

Each dimension consists of the following items.

  1. 1.

    Open Learning

  2. (1)

    (Regarding English learning,) we can remove special barriers.

  3. (2)

    (Regarding English learning,) the world of learning is open.

  4. (3)

    (Regarding English learning,) we can learn even though we are not regular students.

  5. (4)

    (Regarding English learning,) we can learn anything.

  6. (5)

    (Regarding English learning,) we can learn from anyone.

  7. (6)

    (Regarding English learning,) we can learn anywhere.

  8. (7)

    (Regarding English learning,) we can collaborate with other learners.

  9. 2.

    Academic Self-efficacy

  10. (1)

    I can get a good grade.

  11. (2)

    I can do well in this class.

  12. (3)

    I can handle the assignment for this class.

  13. (4)

    I know the subject matter better than the other learners.

  14. (5)

    I can perform better than the other learners.

  15. (6)

    I can learn better than the other learners.

  16. (7)

    I am good at English.

  17. 3.

    Intercultural Communication

  18. (1)

    I want to communicate with various people in English.

  19. (2)

    I want to know more about other cultures and the people in English.

  20. (3)

    I want to participate in intercultural activities in English.

  21. (4)

    I want to be friends with foreigners.

  22. (5)

    I want to be friends with others who have the same interest as me.

  23. (6)

    I want to communicate with friends using SNS.

  24. (7)

    I want to help foreign visitors if they have trouble at a restaurant or at a station.

4 Discussion and Conclusion

A scale “MOOCs for English learners” was developed based on rigid empirical studies. This scale, which consists of three factors, enables an investigation into various elements that enhance English proficiency. The three factors are Open Learning, Academic Self-efficacy, and Intercultural Communication. The first factor was named Open Learning because the items were created with perceptions of openness by the MOOC learners, which reflects the basic concept of Open education from learners’ perspectives (Anzai 2011). Oblinger and Lombardi (2008) state that openness to new ways of knowing is the special feature of successful lifelong learning. The second factor was named Academic Self-efficacy, since most of these high loading items came from Bandura’s Self-efficacy. It should be noted, however, that the item “I am good at English” remained after factor analyses. This language item is very important for second language users in the MOOC learning environment. Overall, learners with high self-efficacy tend to make more stringent efforts than those with lower self-efficacy (Bandura 1997); thus, it is an influential factor for English language learners. The third factor was named Intercultural Communication, since these times reflect willings to communicate in intercultural context (MacIntyre et al. 1998). The authors hope that the scale “MOOCs for English learners” will support English language learning when teachers design instructional materials and methods and/or evaluate their effect.