Keywords

1 Introduction

In today’s digital information society, Information and Communication Technology (ICT) plays a central role in peoples’ educational, professional, social, cultural, and civic lives. Familiarity with different kinds of ICT and related ICT knowledge and skills are crucial requirements for successfully solving everyday tasks and problems (Lennon et al. 2003). Accordingly, developing ICT knowledge and skills have become important goals for educators, and a part of the curriculum that is systematically planned and empirically evaluated in some countries (e.g. Cha et al. 2011; Kim et al. 2008; Poynton 2005; Wongyu 2005).

While ICT seems to be crucial in everyday life, our understanding of what the concept of ICT literacy comprises seems less clear. At first glance, being literate in using ICT refers to the individual’s proficiency in using ICT, including the technical knowledge and cognitive skills needed to effectively deal with hardware and software environments. On the basis of a review of concepts and models of ICT-related literacy (e.g., digital literacy, information literacy or media literacy; for details see Ferrari 2012) Calvani et al. (2012) emphasized the need to focus not only on technical mastery aspects and on the conceptual understanding of technology, but also on higher-order cognitive skills and socio-relational knowldege (see also Lennon et al. 2003).

We propose that a comprehensive view of ICT literacy needs to include also the individuals’ engagement in ICT and their motivation to use ICT, respectively (Lennon et al. 2003’s definition of ICT literacy). In this chapter, we outline the concept of ICT engagement, which represents important cognitive-motivational as well as behavioural variables that explain individual differences in the acquisition of ICT skills and also in the use of ICT for learning and other purposes. Given the rapid development of ICT and ICT-based learning environments, people need to be able to update their ICT knowledge and skills continuously. ICT engagement is assumed to be a crucial individual factor for developing and adapting ICT skills in a self-regulated way. Hence, ICT engagement fosters the acquisition of ICT skills and knowledge and, thereby, facilitates learning and acquiring new knowledge and skills through the life span by using ICT in both formal and informal learning environments, anywhere and at any time (Pelgrum and Anderson 1999).

This chapter is organized as follows: First, we discuss the role of ICT in student learning environments and for lifelong learning. In particular, light is shed on the questions of how ICT is used to learn and, as a necessary condition for that, how students learn to use ICT. In the following section, the conceptual origins of ICT engagement in self-determination theory (SDT; Deci and Ryan 2000) are described. In particular, the well-known factors fostering self-determined behavior are revisited and transferred to the ICT domain. In the next section, we present the multifaceted construct of ICT engagement. At the behavioural level this includes the diversity and the intensity of using ICT in various contexts, such as school, home, and at leisure. Furthermore, ICT engagement represents cognitive-motivational factors facilitating self-determined and self-regulated use of ICT, such as interest in ICT, perceived ICT competence, perceived autonomy in using ICT, and social relatedness in using ICT. On that basis, the relevance of ICT engagement is reflected on in various fields of research and practice. Finally, an overview of the ICT engagement constructs that should be assessed is given.Footnote 1

2 Today’s Digital Society

For many young people ICT (e.g., computer, laptop, smartphone, tablet computer, smart watch, etc.) and ICT-related activities play a major role in the course of their day. For instance, Feierabend et al. (2013) showed that around 90 % of German adolescents use several digital devices and the Internet daily, or multiple times per week. The contexts and purposes for which ICT is used for by young people are diverse: for instance, for work, leisure, participation, learning, socialising, consuming, and empowerment (Ferrari 2012). In the following Sect. 13.2.1 we focus on the important role of ICT in learning, both within and outside of formal learning environments. As a precondition for using ICT to learn, individuals need to learn how to use ICT: this is addressed in Sect. 13.2.2. The ubiquity of ICT implies that ICT skills and knowledge represent a key competency for participation in digital knowledge societies. However, at the same time, significant numbers of today’s adolescents, deemed “digital natives” (Prensky 2001), do not in fact master ICT use: that is, they reach only basic levels of competence in this domain (for computer and information literacy see Fraillon et al. 2014; for problem solving in technology-rich environments see OECD 2013).

2.1 Using ICT to Learn

ICT is supposed to have positive effects on students’ educational learning and success. As a consequence, ICT is more and more finding its way into formal learning environments at schools and universities. Open educational resources (OER), massive open online courses (MOOCs), intelligent tutoring systems (ITS), and web-based flipped classrooms are examples of emerging technology-based learning.

However, there is great variation across schools and countries in the extent to which ICT is available and used by students, as well as educators. Further, this variability is due to variations in the availability of pedagogical and technical support for teachers, including related professional development in universities and vocational training colleges (European Commission 2013; Fraillon et al. 2014).

With regard to computer use within schools, previous research suggests that technology-based learning scenarios have positive effects on learning and learning outcomes (for reviews see e.g., Eng 2005; Punie et al. 2008). For instance, a one-to-one program in formal learning (i.e., students and teacher are both equipped with personal laptops) showed positive effects on the acquisition of information literacy—that is, on organizing and evaluating information, on the quality of argumentation, and on the representation and presentation of knowledge using computers (Spektor-Levy and Granot-Gilat 2012; see also Ilomäki and Rantanen 2007). However, the positive influence of ICT on learning may vary, for instance, depending on the subject (e.g. Pedersen et al. 2006). In the International Computer and Information Literacy Study (ICILS) 2013, assessing the computer and information literacy of grade 8 students, teachers judged ICT teaching and learning and agreed widely across participating countries that ICT not only helps students to access better sources of information but also helps them to develop greater interest in learning, to work at a level appropriate to their learning needs, and to collaborate with one another (Fraillon et al. 2014, p. 200). The majority of teachers indicated that they used computers at least once a week when teaching, or for other work at school. ICT use seemed to be strongest for teachers who were confident about their ICT skills, worked collaboratively with others in the use of ICT, and had fewer resource limitations at their schools (Fraillon et al. 2014).

A major challenge for educational institutions is the generation gap regarding ICT familiarity and the ongoing further development of ICT. For instance, the use of ICT in educational contexts has been massively re-shaped by emerging social computing tools requiring specific skills of collaboration, sharing, openness, reflection, and identity formation (Ala-Mutka et al. 2008; see also Pacino and Noftle 2011). This must be contrasted with slowly adjusting educational systems and limited resources for the professional development of teachers’ ICT expertise. As suggested by the findings from ICILS 2013, school-level planning is required that (i) targets strengthening the teachers’ expertise in ICT use, and thereby their perceived ICT competence, and (ii) provides a supportive environment focused on using ICT and implementing related pedagogical concepts in schools (Fraillon et al. 2014; see also Ala-Mutka et al. 2008).

Regarding ICT use outside formal learning environments, students’ ICT usage used to be associated solely with leisure activities such as social communication, and less explicitly with (intrinsic) learning motives and school-related learning activities. In this regard ICILS 2013 revealed that computer use outside school refers mainly to social communication, exchange of information and recreation (Fraillon et al. 2014). However, about half of the students indicated that they used the Internet to search for information needed for schoolwork at least once a week. ICT for schoolwork was also employed in preparing reports or essays (45 % of students), presentations (44 %), or in working with other students from the same school (40 %) at least once a week.

2.2 Learning to Use ICT

Given the important role of ICT in learning environments, ICT knowledge and skills have to be conceived of as an essential requirement for basic education (Blossfeld 2010; Kozma 2009; Fraillon et al. 2014). ICT skills are needed for successful participation in the labor market (van Deursen and van Dijk 2009), are understood as key competencies for lifelong learning (Ala-Mutka et al. 2008; European Commission 2006), and have even been labeled as survival skills (Eshet‐Alkalai 2004). Current conceptualizations integrate technological and cognitive aspects to define ICT skills. For instance, Lennon et al. (2003; see also Fraillon et al. 2014) describe ICT literacy as using “digital technology and communication tools to access, manage, integrate, and evaluate information, construct new knowledge, and communicate with others in order to participate effectively in society” (Lennon et al. 2003, p. 6). Thus, using ICT successfully to solve information‐related tasks and problems requires specific technical knowledge as well as generic cognitive skills and knowledge.

Although concepts such as “net generation” (Tapscott 1999) and “digital natives” (Prensky 2001) suggest that individuals belonging to these groups have the necessary ICT skills at their disposal, recent studies have emphasized that it cannot be assumed that children and adolescents automatically possess these competencies (Calvani et al. 2012; Fraillon et al. 2014). This is critical, given that in nearly all areas of work, ICT-related competencies are crucial for employability (e.g., OECD 2015a). Young employees are often not in command of those ICT skills that are needed at their workplace (Cory and Pruske 2012; Gibbs et al. 2014). For instance, Gibbs et al. (2014) demonstrated that most of the assessed employees could manage only very basic spreadsheet tasks and failed in more advanced ones (e.g., naming a cell). Van Deursen and Diepen (2013) concluded that secondary students’ information and strategic Internet skills (e.g., defining proper search queries) left much room for improvement. Other studies highlight that today’s students’ ICT-related deficits include awareness of online personal safety or social problems (Calvani et al. 2012, investigating secondary school students), as well as algorithmic thinking (Cha et al. 2011, investigating primary school students).

ICT-related curricula and teaching approaches vary considerably among and within countries (e.g., Kozma 2008), and the process of learning to use ICT depends greatly on the conditions of the respective educational systems. Thus, there is no fully clear understanding of where and how individual ICT skills are being developed, and how school education can and should contribute to the development of ICT skills (Fraillon et al. 2014, p. 32). Nevertheless, the ICILS 2013 study provides some hints: Those determinants that proved to be important for the teachers’ use of ICT in their teaching were also supportive of their respective teaching ICT skills (Fraillon et al. 2014). In other words, to develop students’ ICT skills to their best, teachers’ expertise in ICT use needed to be enhanced and pedagogically and technically supported by a collaborative environment that is part of the system- and school-level planning. However, at present it seems that developing individual ICT skills may especially take place in out of school contexts, as with family and peers. Based on their in-depth analysis of ICILS 2013 self-report data, Eickelmann et al. (2015) could show that students mostly learn how to use ICT on their own or in their families. For instance, 70.9 % of the students learned finding information on the Internet on their own, 16.0 % learned it from their families, and only 10.6 % learned it from their teachers. In another recent study, Verhoeven et al. (2016), investigated the ICT learning experience of university students. Their descriptive findings suggest that the quantity of learning ICT was greatest in the peer context followed by family members and teachers showing no difference. Moreover, peers were perceived to be most supportive in ICT learning followed by family members and teachers.

The lack of systematic ICT learning opportunities for students in schools on the one hand as well as problems with implementing educational policies on learning ICT in the classroom on the other hand, highlights the importance of informal learning environments where individuals learn to use ICT and further develop ICT skills and knowledge in a self-regulated way. This kind of learning outside school is assumed to be fostered significantly by the student’s ICT engagement, as outlined in the following section.

3 ICT Engagement

3.1 Factors Fostering Self-Determined Behavior

Following SDT (Deci and Ryan 2000), intrinsically motivated behavior driven by personal interests (e.g., in ICT) represents the prototype of self-determined behavior. However, extrinsic motivation can also be self-determined or autonomous, if the person has identified with the personal importance of a behavior and integrated it to the self (Deci and Ryan 1993; Ryan and Deci 2000). Thus, both intrinsic motivation and integrated extrinsic motivation provide the basis of self-determined behavior.

Intrinsically motivated behavior is understood as engaging freely in tasks or activities that fit the person’s interest, that are novel and that provide an optimal challenge. Doing such activities is intrinsically rewarding and does not depend on any separable consequences as is the case for extrinsic motivation. Intrinsically motivated behavior is considered a very important factor for psychological growth (Deci and Ryan 1980), in that it is associated with better learning, performance, and well-being (e.g., Deci and Ryan 1993; Valas and Sovik 1993). Hence, it can be assumed that intrinsic motivation is a crucial factor in lifelong learning. This is a major issue in the ICT context. To keep pace with the ongoing development of ICT, people need to be motivated to continuously adapt their ICT knowledge and skills. SDT distinguishes initiating an activity from the maintaining and enhancing factors of intrinsically motivated behaviour. Initiating an activity is driven by the people’s interests (e.g., Schiefele 1991): that is, the people are involved in activities because they find them individually important and positively value them (Deci and Ryan 1985), and would do this even in the absence of any external consequences (e.g., reinforcement). Maintaining and enhancing factors of intrinsically motivated behaviour comprise the satisfaction of basic psychological needs: that is, perceived autonomy, perceived competence, and social relatedness. This means that people continue to show certain behaviours if their needs to feel self-determined, competent, and socially related are satisfied by engaging in those activities. More specifically, perceived competence can be assumed to play a role in the development of any type of motivation, but for intrinsic motivation, people must also have the feeling of being responsible (internalized perceived locus of causality). Relatedness is a less proximal maintaining factor, and refers to secure connectedness or belongingness to others (Ryan and Deci 2000).

Engaging in ICT activities is often initiated extrinsically (e.g., Davis et al. 1992), because ICT serves as a useful tool for dealing with the digital information needed to attain personal goals (e.g., doing a web search for planning a trip). In this sense, using ICT becomes instrumental, and ICT activities are no longer self-rewarding. Nevertheless, extrinsically motivated behaviour can be transformed to self-determined behaviour by the processes of internalization and integration (Deci and Ryan 1985; Ryan and Deci 2000). Internalization describes the process of incorporating external values and regulation principles into the individual’s internal regulation, and integration is the process by which identified regulations and values are embedded in the self. Although the behaviour is still initiated by its instrumental value, integrated extrinsic motivation shows many qualities similar to intrinsic motivation: in particular, the behaviour is volitional and is valued by the self (Ryan and Deci 2000). Conscious valuing of the usefulness of activities (e.g., ICT use) and their congruence with a personal system of values and goals, makes these activities autonomous and self-determined (Ryan and Deci 2000). Thus, with regard to self-determined behaviour, intrinsic motivation and (integrated) extrinsic motivation are not strictly antagonistic, but are very much related (for a similar conclusion related to the prediction of performance see Cerasoli et al. 2014).

3.2 ICT Engagement and Related Engagement Concepts

The proposed concept of ICT engagement integrates the initiating as well the maintaining and enhancing factors of self-determined use of ICT. Following SDT, at the cognitive-motivational level these factors are: ICT interest, perceived ICT competence, perceived autonomy related to ICT use, and ICT as a topic in social interaction (see Sect. 13.3.3 for further details). Given that students’ ICT engagement is a major condition of individual learning and growth in the ICT domain, it is assumed to be positively related to performance in ICT tasks and problems, and to foster self-determined high-quality ICT learning across the life span. Moreover, developing adequate ICT skills may further support students’ general school-related learning outcomes by using ICTs as an additional learning resource (e.g., Punie et al. 2008).

The concept of engagement is frequently used across domains (for an overview see, e.g., Zylka et al. 2015). Briefly described, engagement represents cognitive-motivational and behavioral characteristics of self-determined behavior in the respective domain. The concept of engagement reflects that a literate person not only possesses knowledge and skills in a certain domain (e.g., reading) but also values and uses them in a self-determined way that fosters further development. To better understand ICT engagement, it is beneficial to have a look at other concepts of engagement, such as reading and computer engagement. Thus, the concept of ICT engagement is not only derived from the domain-general concepts of SDT but also relates to other domain-specific conceptualizations of engagement.

Reading engagement refers both to motivational processes and to cognitive strategies during reading: that is, engaged readers show higher intrinsic motivation and use strategies for comprehension (e.g., writing a summary) more frequently (Guthrie 1996; see also OECD 2009). From this it follows that reading engagement will be correlated with achievement and growth in reading comprehension. Fredricks and colleagues (2004) also propose that engagement is a multidimensional attribute consisting of behavioural (performing tasks), cognitive (using strategies when performing tasks), and emotional (enjoying tasks) engagement. Factors influencing reading motivation have been shown to be: the degree of autonomy and choice, the interestingness of texts, the presentation of content goals for reading instruction, and the supporting and organizing of collaboration (Guthrie and Humenick 2004; Wigfield et al. 2008). Obviously, these factors strongly overlap with the initiating and maintaining factors of intrinsically motivated behaviour.

Another line of research proposes the concept of computer engagement, restricted to students’ computer and online-game use. Charlton and Birkett (1995) developed a (behavioural) computer attitudes scale ranging from apathy to high levels of engagement or dependence. Computer engagement was supposed to be indicated by the amount of time spent on computer activities and the degree of positivity of the orientation towards computers, and it was shown to be related to performance in computer courses. Further, some research has aimed at separating students’ pathological addiction to computers from non-pathological computer engagement (Charlton 2002)—for instance, in the context of online games.

3.3 ICT Engagement Factors

Basically, we assume that ICT engagement is reflected by the manifest behavioural characteristics of people’s ICT usage, as well as by latent cognitive-motivational factors initiating and maintaining ICT activities.

3.3.1 Behavioural Level

The behavioural level represents involvement in ICT: that is, the frequency of ICT use and the amount of time spent using ICT, respectively. As a necessary condition of behavioural engagement, ICT needs to be physically available for use. With regard to using ICT for learning purposes, the availability and use of ICT in schools and classrooms needs to be considered. However, given that ICT is embedded also in more informal learning environments, such as students’ homes and other places where students engage in learning activities (e.g., studying vocabulary or grammar on the bus using a smart phone), ICT use and availability outside schools also have to be regarded.

3.3.1.1 Availability of ICT

Investigating the role of ICT in learning environments and its effect on students’ learning outcomes brings with it the question of how well countries have implemented ICT infrastructures in schools and classrooms, and how well students and their parents are equipped with ICT (see the classical digital divide, referring to differences in physical access; van Dijk 2006). Apart from physical availability, students also need to be able to access and use ICT: the use of which may be constrained both at school (e.g., computers are available only in lab rooms) and at home. Thus, availability and usability of digital devices are necessary conditions for ICT playing a role in learning environments (sample item from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2015 ICT Familiarity questionnaire: Availability of “Desktop computer”, response options: Yes, and I use it; Yes, but I don’t use it; No). At school, this also includes the availability of technical support for hardware, software updates, customizing systems and administration services. From a system-monitoring perspective, ICT availability proved to be a quite useful factor for between- and within-country-analyses in previous PISA assessments. Although cross-country variation in ICT availability decreased between the two PISA assessments in 2000 and 2009 (OECD 2011), substantial cross-country variation can still be expected, especially when taking the social-economic background of students into account, or when looking at the latest ICT developments, such as mobile devices and applications (e.g., smart phones, smart classes). The ICILS 2013 study represents the availability of ICT by means of the ICT Development Index score, and student-computer ratios by country, both of which showed great variability across participating countries and relevant relationships with students’ computer and information literacy (Fraillon et al. 2014).

3.3.1.2 Using ICT

At the behavioral level, ICT engagement is further reflected by the frequency and diversity of ICT use, both within and outside school. There are different ways to conceptualize and organize ICT use: The tool-oriented approach refers simply to the use of different software and network applications such as word processing, spreadsheets, picture editing, email, instant messaging, etc. The task-oriented approach rather, highlights that ICT can be used to solve problems or complete tasks. For instance, typical cognitive tasks that can be solved by using ICT are accessing, managing, integrating, evaluating, communicating and creating information represented by ICT (Lennon et al. 2003). The advantage of the task-oriented approach is that it does not depend on how software applications are designed, and that the assumed tasks (e.g., searching information for preparing a presentation) are of persistent importance, regardless of how they are conducted at the technical level.

The task-oriented approach implies that persons use ICT because they expect certain outcomes, incentives or gratifications when using ICT. The use and gratification approach (e.g., Stafford et al. 2004) to ICT tries to explain why and how people use ICT to satisfy individual needs. La Rose and Eastin (2004) propose six types of incentives for Internet usage from a social cognitive perspective. For instance, novel sensory incentives refer to searching for new information (information seeking gratification), and social incentives rewarding social interaction (social gratification). Thus, the use of ICT can be categorized into the different kinds of expected outcome.

From the perspective of ICT as a learning tool, ICT use for learning purposes, both within and outside school or classroom (Verhoeven et al. 2016), can be distinguished from ICT use that does not target learning but rather, leisure or recreation (Fraillon et al. 2014; Kent and Facer 2004; Senkbeil and Ihme 2014). These different uses can be linked to types of gratification. For instance, information seeking for gratification may play a role in learning but also in other activities (sample item from the PISA 2015 ICT Familiarity questionnaire: “Browsing the Internet for schoolwork [e.g., for preparing an essay or presentation]”), whereas social gratification clearly relates to ICT use for leisure and entertainment. School-related ICT use outside school varies in the degree of self-directedness: for instance, completing a learning unit on the computer as homework as directed by the teacher, or doing a web search voluntarily to follow up a lesson. Using ICT for leisure activities—for instance, social network activities, searching for practical information, online shopping, and playing games—does not necessarily serve school-related learning purposes. However, general learning may be fostered, for instance, when searching information on the Internet and applying it successfully to solve a certain problem in a self-determined way (e.g., fixing or creating something).

3.3.2 Cognitive-Motivational Level

At the cognitive-motivational level of ICT engagement we conceptualize and describe in the following sections the initiating, maintaining, and enhancing factors of self-determined use of ICT. As suggested by SDT, these factors are: ICT interest (complemented by instrumental values of ICT use), perceived ICT competence, perceived autonomy in ICT use, and ICT as a topic in social interaction. Note that some of these factors can also be related to other theoretical frameworks, and in particular expectancy-value models proposing that ICT-related behavior depends on the value of ICT in satisfying certain needs and expectations of using ICT successfully to obtain this goal (Dickhäuser 2001; Senkbeil and Ihme 2014). Value relates in ICT interest and the instrumental values of using ICT, whereas expectancy is reflected by perceived ICT competence. Similarly, the Technology Acceptance Model (e.g., Davis 1989) explains ICT behaviour on the one hand through perceived usefulness and perceived enjoyment, and on the other, by perceived ease of use.

3.3.2.1 ICT Interest

Following common conceptualizations of individual interest (e.g., Krapp 2002; Ryan and Deci 2000; Schiefele 1991), ICT interest is understood as content-specific motivational disposition: that is, individuals’ long-term preference for dealing with topics, tasks, or activities related to ICT. ICT interest as an evaluative orientation toward ICT is assumed to be a conditioning factor of intrinsically motivated ICT activities and self-determined motivation to learn about ICT and to enhance ICT competencies. In the context of learning, ICT interest may increase the quality of learning results; foster the use of learning strategies, facilitating deep processing; and improve the quality of learning experience (Hidi and Renninger 2006; Schiefele 1991). Following Schiefele (1991), two intrinsic components of individual ICT interest can be distinguished. Feeling-related valences refer to (positive) feelings that are associated with a certain subject area, topic or activity, such as enjoyment and involvement when dealing with ICT or being involved in ICT (sample item from the PISA 2015 ICT Familiarity questionnaire: “I forget about time when I'm using digital devices“).

Value-related ICT valences refer to ICT’s personal significance for one’s personality and competence development, or for understanding relevant problems. In this sense, ICT-related behavior is often initiated extrinsically, because of the instrumental values of the use of ICT. We include integrated extrinsic ICT motivation in this factor, because it provides the basis for initiating self-determined ICT behavior as intrinsic ICT motivation (sample item from the PISA 2015 ICT Familiarity questionnaire: “The Internet is a great resource for obtaining information I am interested in [e.g., news, sports, dictionary]”). Thus, the factor ICT interest as antecedent of self-determined behavior refers to positive involvement and enjoyment when using ICT and specific ICT-based products (e.g., mobile devices, games, or social networks), as well as the instrumental value and benefit of ICT for attaining personal goals.

3.3.2.2 Perceived ICT Competence

Perceived ICT competence is conceptualized as the individual’s perception of his or her own knowledge about ICT and about how to use it (ICT skills). Following SDT (Ryan and Deci 2000), feelings of ICT competence during an activity can increase intrinsic motivation for that activity, since these feelings are assumed to satisfy the basic psychological need for competence (sample item from the PISA 2015 ICT Familiarity questionnaire: “I feel comfortable using digital devices that I am less familiar with“). Perceived competence can be referred to as self-concept, defined as knowledge and perceptions about oneself in achievement situations that are affected by past experiences (Wigfield and Eccles 2000). The development of domain-specific skills and knowledge is assumed to be positively related to self-concept (e.g., Byrne 1996), in that learning opportunities are chosen according to self-perceived competencies. Perceiving themselves as more competent should affect learners’ willingness to engage in domain-specific activities that facilitate the development of domain-specific competencies.

The domain-specific ICT self-concept as a self-perceived competence describes a person’s notions and beliefs about his or her knowledge and skills concerning computers and ICT, such as handling everyday computer situations (Janneck et al. 2013). In line with general self-concept research regarding mathematics and technologies, females’ self-concept ratings in computer skills and other ICT skills have been shown to be more negative than the ratings of their male peers (Birol et al. 2009; Janneck et al. 2013; Sáinz and Eccles 2012; Zarrett and Malanchuk 2005). Some research work has shown that computer self-concept affects adolescents’ choice of ICT-related courses or subjects, as well as career choices (Janneck et al. 2013; Sáinz and Eccles 2012; Zarrett and Malanchuk 2005). Further, the relation between a positive ICT self-concept and ICT-related performance outcomes is mediated through ICT interest (Christoph et al. 2015).

3.3.2.3 Perceived Autonomy of ICT Use

This factor of ICT engagement reflects the individual’s perceived control and self-directedness in ICT-related activities. As proposed by SDT (Deci and Ryan 2000), autonomy represents the fundamental need to self-organize behaviour and experience, as well as to initiate activities that are congruent with one’s personal values and goals. In this sense, engaged ICT users are assumed to experience a feeling of control when using ICT, and to self-initiate ICT-related activities, instead of being controlled by external factors. Experiencing autonomy means that the perceived locus of causality for an activity is internal to the individual: that is, it is the individual’s choice to deal with ICT or not. This is assumed to enhance intrinsic motivation, curiosity and the wish for challenge, whereas lacking opportunities for self-direction (i.e., external regulation), would undermine intrinsically motivated behaviour (sample item from the PISA 2015 ICT Familiarity questionnaire: “If I have a problem with digital devices I start to solve it on my own”). Roca and Gagné (2008) investigated antecedents of variables of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and showed that perceived autonomy support is a significant predictor of the perceived usefulness and perceived playfulness of an e-learning system. Both TAM variables substantially influenced intention to continue using e-learning (for a similar study explaining the acceptance and intentional use of a mobile-based assessment see Nikou and Economides 2014). Thus, perceived autonomy related to ICT use can be assumed to be of particular importance for lifelong learning, since a strong and stable feeling of control supports individuals continuously dealing with ICT in a self-directed way.

3.3.2.4 ICT as a Topic in Social Interaction

Following SDT (Ryan and Deci 2000), ICT as a topic of social interaction is understood in terms of social relatedness: that is, connectedness or belongingness to others when dealing with ICT. More specifically, social relatedness in the ICT domain refers to the personal need to share ICT interest, knowledge, experiences and activities with others by making ICT a subject of interpersonal communication and interaction. In contrast to ICT interest, this motivational aspect is more directed to other persons and social situations through ICT experiences, where concerns can be exchanged (sample item from the PISA 2015 ICT Familiarity questionnaire: “I like to share information about digital devices with my friends”). Furthermore, social relatedness represents informal, non-institutional learning contexts for acquiring ICT skills and knowledge. Thus, high motivation for ICT-related socializing suggests that persons are provided with specific learning opportunities that may promote development in ICT skills and knowledge (sample item from the PISA 2015 ICT Familiarity questionnaire: “I learn a lot about digital media by discussing with my friends and relatives“). Following the self-enhancement model (Helmke and van Aken 1995), persons perceiving themselves as more competent might be more willing to engage in social ICT-related activities, as well as more likely to share ICT knowledge and experiences. In contrast, avoidance of such social situations might be due to a more negative self-perception (Christoph et al. 2015). According to Thoman et al. (2007), engaging in activities with others not only satisfies the need for belongingness but also influences the experience of and motivation for the activity itself. Talking and interacting with others about the activity of interest regulates peoples’ motivation to persist in carrying out the activity of interest. For instance, Pasupathi and Rich (2005) showed that interest in an activity (playing a computer game) is maintained if, in a conversation about this activity, the listener shows attentiveness (i.e., if social verification is given).

4 Relevance

The cognitive-motivational and behavioral variables of ICT engagement are assumed to be of importance for educational research, instructional practices, and for educational evaluation and system monitoring.

In educational research the concept of ICT engagement may help to explain how well learners fare with ICT in learning environments and to which degree they act independently. Actually, the question of whether ICT has an effect on learning outcomes (i.e., attainment, but also on independent learning, collaborative learning) has been raised in a voluminous amount of research, but the evidence of the impact of ICT still seems to be inconsistent (Condie et al. 2007; Cox et al. 2004). Some previous research studies suffer from conceptual and methodological weaknesses, such as ignoring the multiple determination of learning outcomes by distal and proximal predictors, as well as neglecting the underlying mechanisms that mediate the impact of ICT use on educational achievement (Senkbeil and Wittwer 2013; Wittwer and Senkbeil 2008). Overall, it still has to be clarified how students’ ICT-related behavioral, motivational and cognitive characteristics contribute to their learning progress. As stated above, these characteristics seem to be relevant for students’ learning outcomes. However, little research has been conducted to shed light on the interaction of students’ ICT engagement with school level factors (e.g., national ICT infrastructure, availability of technical support) and class level factors (e.g., pedagogical concepts using ICT) affecting the students’ learning process. Outcomes of this learning process are regarded as both ICT- and curriculum-related achievements, but also as self-directedness to use ICT for supporting and shaping the individual learning process.

From the perspective of learning and instruction, preparing students for their participation in society should aim at strengthening their ICT engagement, to foster self-regulated learning using ICT throughout the life span. To support such a development, new ICT-related pedagogical concepts need to be established in school that adopt “student-centered and collaborative, inquiry-oriented teaching practices as well as practices that support students’ authentic activities, independent work, knowledge building, and students’ responsibility” (Ilomäki 2008, p. 4). A crucial factor in the success of this change is the ICT-related pedagogical competence of the teachers who are challenged to bridge the generation gap in ICT use and competencies. Creating appropriate learning environments where schools and teachers meet students’ needs and expectations, makes it necessary to monitor ICT-related variables at the student level (e.g., perceived ICT competence, perceived autonomy related to ICT use) but also at the class level (e.g., teachers’ ICT competence) and school level (e.g., availability of ICT and technical support).

Although ICT has become a standard in education not only in technologically advanced countries but also in developing countries during the last years, ICT equipment and the use of ICT in schools, still vary widely from one country to another and also within countries (Ilomäki 2008; Korte and Hüsing 2007; Vanderlinde et al. 2014; OECD 2015b). From a system-monitoring and evaluation perspective, countries have become increasingly interested in implementing assessments of ICT-related variables at student and school level, to support decisions in educational policy (UNESCO 2009). Likewise, from 2000 onwards, PISA provided data on ICT-related student variables by offering the ICT Familiarity Questionnaire as an international option. In the ICILS 2013 study (Fraillon et al. 2014) a similar student questionnaire was administered to assess context variables of computer and information literacy. The PISA ICT Familiarity Questionnaire option provides extensive information on students’ ICT familiarity, which is widely understood as a key disposition enabling students to participate in a society that requires dealing with a variety of digital technology (e.g., OECD 2005).

The questionnaire option in PISA 2015 (for an overview of the assessed constructs see Table 13.1) adds value to educational policy in particular by including the concept of ICT engagement. Countries choosing this option are provided with additional data extending the knowledge of governments, policy makers, schools and other organizations, as well as researchers, about ICT availability, ICT use and ICT engagement within and between countries (e.g., OECD 2005, 2009; Senkbeil and Wittwer 2007). The data provided by PISA has supported the understanding of how ICT familiarity is related to demographic variables and cognitive outcomes (Liem et al. 2014; Luu and Freeman 2011). Thus, differences, for instance, by gender or socio-demographic variables in ICT use may cause differences not only in ICT competence but also in learning a certain subject, inasmuch it relies on using ICT. Again, school (e.g., ratio of student to computer) and classroom characteristics (e.g., teachers’ engagement) may influence the effect of ICT familiarity on individual differences on such learning outcomes (Perrotta 2013, 2015; Roehrig et al. 2007).

Table 13.1 List of constructs included in the PISA 2015 field trial to assess ICT familiarity and engagement
Full size table

5 Overview of Constructs to Be Assessed in ICT Engagement

The concept of ICT engagement in learning environments, as presented above, comprises the initiating as well as the maintaining and enhancing factors of self-determined ICT use. Thus, the constructs to be assessed at the cognitive-motivational level are ICT interest (complemented by instrumental values of ICT use), perceived ICT competence, perceived autonomy related to ICT use, and ICT as a topic in social interaction. Furthermore, at the behavioral level, ICT use should be included as an indicator of ICT engagement. Finally, as a general conditioning factor of active ICT use, the availability of different types of ICTs is to be included, to complete the assessment of ICT engagement. Table 13.1 gives an overview of the constructs assessed in the PISA 2015 field trial that represented ICT Engagement. All these constructs and their related items also became part of the PISA 2015 main study