Abstract
The number of species in the three families of freshwater crayfish worldwide (Astacidae, Cambaridae, and Parastacidae) are updated by region. These are: Astacidae, western North America (5 species) and Europe (5 species), Cambaridae, eastern North America and Mexico (423 species) and Asia (6 species), and Parastacidae, Oceania (153 species), South America (12 species), and Madagascar (7 species). The conservation status of 611 species of crayfish worldwide is discussed, based on global assessments from the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) Red List protocols as well as regional assessments on governmental endangered species lists. The current threats to endangered species of crayfish include habitat destruction, water diversion, pollution, and threats from exotic species of crayfish (such as Pacifastacus leniusculus, Procambarus clarkii and Cherax) that have been introduced to other parts of the world where they are having an increasing impact. New threats posed by the parthenogenetic marbled crayfish Procambarus fallax f. virginalis to freshwater ecosystems in Europe and Madagascar are also discussed.
Access provided by Autonomous University of Puebla. Download chapter PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Keywords
3.1 Introduction
Freshwater crayfish (Astacoidea) globally comprise three families: the Astacidae and Cambaridae (Astacoidea) in the northern hemisphere, and the Parastacidae (Parastacoidea) in the southern hemisphere. Crayfish belong to the Decapoda, the largest crustacean taxon, and are conspicuous freshwater macroinvertebrates (Holdich 2002). Crayfish are easy to collect (Crandall 2016) and to raise in captivity and so over the years have become one of the best-studied crustacean taxa, serving as model organisms in zoology since Victorian times (Stebbing 1893; Huxley 1896). Freshwater crayfish have also long been exploited in inland aquaculture.
The International Association of Astacology founded in Hinterthal, Austria in 1972, has organized biannual international symposia and published the peer-reviewed journal “Freshwater Crayfish”, from the 1970s to the 1990s. Significant recent multi-authored publications on crayfish include “Freshwater Crayfish: Biology, Management and Exploitation” (Holdich and Lowery 1988), and “Biology of Freshwater Crayfish” (Holdich 2002), and “Management of Freshwater Geodiversity, Crayfish as Bioindicators” (Reynolds and Souty-Grosset 2013) that all address the increasing need for the sustainable management of crayfish. Other major milestones include molecular studies on the phylogeny and global diversity of crayfish (Crandall and Buhay 2008), and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List conservation assessments of every known species of crayfish worldwide (Richman et al. 2015). Here we report on the extinction risks of all crayfish in the world by analyzing the patterns of population changes and threats as a guide for crayfish conservation (Richman et al. 2015). Equally important, we highlight the gaps in knowledge that still exist across all families of crayfish. In addition, the recent multi-authored volume “Freshwater Crayfish: Global Overview” (Kawai et al. 2015) focuses on the threats to all crayfish posed by the spread in several countries of the parthenogenetic marbled crayfish that arose in aquaria in Germany in the 1990s.
This chapter provides the latest information on crayfish biodiversity in every part of their range (eastern North America and Mexico, western North America, Central America, South America, Asia, Oceania, Madagascar, and Europe) as well as describing their conservation status and the major threats. Introduced species of crayfish can have a serious impact on native ecosystems which has been well documented for native European crayfish populations (Holdich 1999). A number of species of North American crayfishes have been introduced to other parts of the world and are spreading rapidly. The current global spread of alien species of crayfish in many parts of the world, and the threats posed by these exotic species, are summarized based on new data (Fig. 3.1).
Updated distribution of native species of freshwater Crayfish
3.2 Global Diversity
Freshwater crayfish (Astacidea) are distributed in the temperate parts of the northern and southern hemispheres. In North America the Cambaridae range from the eastern part of the continent as far south as Mexico, while the Astacidae (Pacifastacus) are found in the western part of the continent west of the Rocky Mountains. In Europe there are five species of astacids (in the genera Astacus and Austropotamobius), while in eastern Asia there are six species of cambarids (in the genus Cambaroides) (Fig. 3.1). The species richness of crayfish is significantly different among geographical regions with North American cambarids forming the most diverse group in the world. For example, North America has 423 species of Cambaridae and 5 species of Astacidae; Asia has 6 species of Cambaridae, Europe has 5 species of Astacidae, South America has 12 species of Parastacidae, Oceania has 153 species of Parastacidae, and Madagascar has 7 species of Parastacidae.
Scholtz (2002) and Vogt (2016, this book Chap. 6) suggest that direct development in freshwater decapods evolved as an adaptation to freshwater by their marine ancestors, and that extended maternal care has been responsible for the high rates of endemism and speciation. Freshwater crayfish have the most sophisticated paternal care between a mother and her offspring of all freshwater decapods. Although there are small differences in physiological and behavioral adaptations among the three families of crayfish from different parts of the world, molecular phylogenetic studies indicate that the group is monophyletic and that all crayfish share a common ancestor that invaded freshwaters only once. Two families of crayfish (Parastacidae and North American Cambaridae) produce an anal thread that connects recently hatched juveniles to the pleopods of the mother, and it is the third stage moult juveniles that become independent, whereas Asian Cambaridae and European Astacidae all lack an anal thread and it is the second stage moult juveniles that become independent. Scholtz and Kawai (2002) interpreted the regional differences in species richness shown by the three families of crayfish in terms of differences in the behavior and morphology of the juveniles. Those authors suggested that it was the more advanced maternal care of Parastacidae and North American Cambaridae that has contributed to their species richness, but they noted that there were two exceptions. For example, although the Madagascan Parastacidae (7 species) and the South American Parastacidae (13 species) have relatively advanced maternal care both groups have a low species richness.
3.3 Global Distribution and Zoogeography
All species of crayfish live their entire lives in freshwater and are unable to extend their distribution to other aquatic envoronments, but there are three notable exceptions to this: For example, Astascus leptodactylus, Pacifastacus leniusculus, and Procambarus clarkii can tolerate high salinities and occur naturally in brackish water estuaries and salt marshes (Kawai and Takahata 2010; Scholtz 2002). Hobbs (1988) explained the enigmatic distribution of these latter species as a reflection of significant variations in their external body shape, and suggested that some ancestors of crayfish had independently entered and colonized freshwater from marine habitats at different times, and that crayfish were therefore polyphyletic. On the other hand, the molecular phylogeny of the crayfish by Crandall et al. (2000a, b) supports the monophyly of the group. The oldest crayfish fossils date from the Triassic period which implies that this group originated on the single super continent of Pangea (Scholtz 2002; Bracken-Grissom et al. 2014). The supercontinent subsequently split up over time eventually forming the modern continents, with each continental piece carrying with it ancient crayfish populations that then diversified in isolation to produce the present global distribution patterns (Toon et al. 2010).
However, there are two enigmatic distributions that are difficult to explain. First, although the majority of the Cambaridae are found in eastern North America and Mexico, there is a small population in eastern Asia. Second, although the majority of the Astacidae are found in western North America (USA and Canada), there are some species of this family in western Europe (Fig. 3.1). Recent molecular analyses (Crandall et al. 2000a; Ahn et al. 2006; Braband et al. 2006; Owen et al. 2015) pointed out that the Asian Cambaridae and American Cambaridae may be polyphyletic and that the Asian cambarids (Cambaroides) may be a primitive stem group of all northern hemisphere crayfish.
3.4 Habitat
Freshwater crayfish live in streams, rivers, lakes, and marshes, and are completely dependent on permanent freshwater their whole lives. If the water levels of their habitat fall, or the stream bed dries up, then crayfish construct a verical burrow down to the water table so that their burrow has layer of water in the botton and humid air above it (Grow 1981). Fluctuations of water levels in freshwater habitats is commonplace and often seasonal, and construction of burrows is therefore a common adaptative behavior in crayfish (Kawai and Takahata 2010). The ability to dig a vertical burrow into muddy substrata is seen in the European Astacidae (Füreder 2015), North American Astacidae (Koese and Soes 2011), Madagascan Parastacidae (Jones et al. 2007), North American Cambaridae (Hobbs 1942), Asian Cambaridae (Kawai and Takahata 2010), Oceanaian Parastacidae (Riek 1969), and South American Parastacidae (Rudolph and Almerão 2015).
Constructing burrows is a trait that is also seen in marine lobsters (e.g., Homarus americanus) which are a sister group to the crayfish, as well as in the marine mantis shrimp Oratosquilla oratoria (Matsuura and Hamano 1984; Scholtz 2002). The oldest fossil burrows of crayfish are from freshwater depositis dating back to the Triassic or Jurassic (Hasiotis and Kirkland 1997; Hasiotis and Thomas 1997), which indicates that the ancestors of crayfish may well have constructed burrows (Kawai and Takahata 2010).
3.5 Regional Diversity, Distribution, and Conservation
3.5.1 Eastern North America and Mexico
3.5.1.1 Taxonomy and Population Levels
Eastern North America and Mexico has the most diverse crayfish fauna in the world and new species are still being described (Crandall and Buhay 2008) (Table 3.1). This region harbours 371 species in 11 genera and one family (Cambaridae), with three genera, Cambarus, Orconectes, and Procambarus that account for over 80 % of all camabarid species.
The IUCN Red List conservation status assessments identify species that are under the greatest risk of extinction, as well as providing critical information on each species including data on distribution and their ecology, population trends, and genetics (Rodrigues et al. 2006). The IUCN Red List uses detailed quantitative criteria to assign species to nine categories (Least Concern, Near Threatened, Vulnerable, Endangered, Critically Endangered, Extinct in the Wild, and Extinct, Data Deficient, and Not Evaluated) based on biological indicators of population levels such as rapid population declines, small population sizes, and the degree of threat. The Least Concern and Near Threatened categories indicate species that are presently doing well, while the threatened categories (VU, EN, CR) indicate that there is a significant risk of extinction (IUCN 2013). Species in Table 3.1 are marked by 2 “Endangered” which indicates that they have been petitioned for listing as endangered species based on regional criteria from governmental agencies such as the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Thoma 2015). This list does not include subspecies and fossil species, and updated regional species lists based on the latest monographs of freshwater crayfish by regional taxonomic specialists (Thoma 2015).
3.6 Distribution
The river basins in the Atlantic drainage in the USA have more species than any other continent. The rich species diversity is particularly concentrated in the southeastern United States between the Ozark Mountains of Missouri and Arkansas, and new species are still being described. In the Appalachian Mountains species abundance is concentrated in the southern range in eastern Tennessee, northern Georgia, and western South Carolina and North Carolina (Thoma 2015).
3.7 Conservation
Crayfish conservation in the United States has risen in importance in recent years and several works have highlighted the numbers of rare and threatened species (Master 1990; Taylor et al. 2007). Some 371 species are known from the Atlantic drainages of Canada and the USA, of which 86 (23.2 %) are too poorly known to assess (Data Deficient). The IUCN Red List shows 53 (14.3 %) species of crayfish in Canada and USA to be threatened with extinction, while the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) (Center for Biological Diversity 2010), additionally lists 8 species, total 61 species (total 16.4 % of the fauna) as endangered. It is likely that many of the newly described species of crayfish that have a small population and a restricted distribution are in a threatened category when their formal conservation assessments have been made.
Lodge et al. (2000) discussed the spread of crayfish species in North America and have evaluated the effects of non-native species on the indigenous fauna. Alien invasive species of crayfish impact both indigenous species of crayfish and fish, especially those species that rely on submerged aquatic vegetation (Lodge et al. 1998a, b). Despite this, some forty political units in Canada and the United States do not regulate the use of, or movement of, crayfish within their boundaries. Because of this it is likely that more non-native crayfish populations will become established in the U.S. and Canada and that this will increase the number of endangered species in these two countries (Thoma 2015).
3.7.1 North America, Pacific Drainages
Pacifastacus leniusculus has three subspecies (Miller 1960) but recent molecular analyses by Sonntag (2006), Larson et al. (2012), and Larson and Williams (2015) suggest that all three subspecies should properly be recognized as valid species (Table 3.2). About 40 % of North American species of crayfish living in the Pacific drainages are threatened with extinction and another 20 % are Data Deficient.
3.8 Distribution
The native range of the genus Pacifastacus lies in the Columbia River system, but there is a lack of clarity of their exact historic distributions prior to widespread human-related introductions because it is known that P. leniusculus has been introduced into the U.S. states of California, Nevada, and Utah (Larson and Olden 2011, 2013; Martinez 2012),. This is proving to be a barrier to our understanding of the endemic range of these crayfish (Riegel 1959; Abrahamsson and Goldman 1970; Johnson 1986).
3.9 Conservation
The IUCN Red List for the North American Pacific drainages records one endangered species (Pacifastacus fortis), and another species (P. nigrescens) that is now extinct. The U.S. Endangered Species Act (http://explorer.natureserve.org/statusus.htm) (U.S. ESA) is the primary legislation that affords federal legal protection to threatened and endangered species in the United States, and is administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) (http://endangered.fws.gov/) and U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) (http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/prot_res/overview/es.html). Recently, the U.S. Endangered Species Act recognised P. fortis as endangered, and P. gambelii and P. connectens as being of least concern. However, Bouchard (1977) assigned P. fortis as “Threatened” under the U.S. ESA, which was upgraded to “Endangered” in 1988 (Singleton 1987). Bouchard (1977) suggested that P. nigrescens was probably extinct owing to the effects of urbanization in the San Francisco area coupled with the impacts of the invasive crayfish P. leniusculus. Pacifastacus fortis appears highly impacted by range expansions of non-native species such as P. leniusculus and the cambarid Orconectes virilis (Eng and Daniels 1982; Light et al. 1995; Ellis 1999). Recent research has evaluated behavioral interactions between P. fortis and P. leniusculus (Pintor et al. 2008), and management actions have included the design and construction of impassable barriers to crayfish aimed at preventing the further spread of invasive species into critical habitats for P. fortis (Ellis 2005). The conservation status of the three nominal subspecies of P. leniusculus is as follows: P. l. klamathensis and P. l. trowbridgii are endangered, whereas P. l. leniusculus is not endangered.
3.10 Distribution
The crayfish of Mexico and Central America range from sea level wetlands and salt marshes to highland streams above 3000 m in parts of central Mexico (Table 3.3). Although the natural habitat of crayfish is generally limited to freshwater, species such as P. clarkii have been recorded from brackish water habitats (Huner and Barr 1991), and another species (P. maya) has been collected from a salt marsh with a salinity of 5.5 ppt in the Sian Ka’an Nature Reserve in Quintana Roo, Mexico about 1 km from the coast (Alvarez et al. 2011). Crayfish are not evenly distributed throughout Mexico and Central America. In Mexico, the majority of species are found along the Gulf of Mexico slope, while a less diverse group occurs along the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, and a few species form a third disjunctive group distributed on the Pacific versant. Crayfish diversity reaches a high point along the Gulf of Mexico slope in a region where the States of Veracruz, Hidalgo, and Puebla come together (Armendáriz 2011).
3.11 Conservation
The IUCN published conservation assessments of all cambarid species of crayfish (IUCN 2013; Richman et al. 2015). In 2010 the Secretariat of Environment and Natural Resources (in Spanish: Secretaría del Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales, SEMARNAT) published the Mexican Red List of threatened species that is known as Nom-059-Semarnat-2010 (SEMARNAT 2010), which is an updated version of the IUCN Red List . These two reports included the same number of species with 30.5 % of the Mexican and Central American species endangered and another 28.8 % Data Deficient.
In Mexico and Central America only a few species of crayfish have been used for aquaculture. The U.S. red swamp crayfish Procambarus clarkii has been introduced into a number of lakes and ponds in northern Mexico and has since spread to the states of Tamaulipas, Nuevo Leon, Coahuila, Durango, Chihuahua, Sonora, Baja California, and Chiapas (Campos and Rodríguez-Almaraz 1992; Hernández et al. 2008). Torres and Álvarez (2012) found that one non-native population of P. clarkii was genetically more similar to each other than to other introduced populations of P. clarkii found elsewhere in Mexico and Costa Rica, although overall genetic variation within this species was low. In addition, populations of Orconectes virilis (which is native to the northeastern parts of North America) have now become established in Mexico (Campos and Contreras 1985). And the Australian redclaw crayfish, Cherax quadricarinatus, was brought into Mexico in 1995 to start experimental cultures but some have escaped and established wild populations. Mendoza-Alfaro et al. (2011) reviewed the status of C. quadricarinatus in Mexico, but there have been no studies that have focused on the impact of this alien species on the native fauna, especially in nearby Tamaulipas and San Luis Potosi, where there is an important hotspot of native crayfish species diversity .
3.12 South America
The genus Parastacus includes taxonomically problematic species such as P. saffordi, P. pilimanus, and P. varicosus whose external morphological characters closely resemble each other (Table 3.4). Unfortunately, the type series of P. saffordi and P. varicosus comprise only a few specimens and the type specimens of P. pilimanus have been lost. This remains a difficult problem because no additional specimens of these three species have been collected since their original descriptions (Buckup and Rossi 1980; Rudolph and Almerão 2015).
3.13 Distribution
3.14 Conservation
The differences between the conservation status of the South American species of crayfish reported by the IUCN Red List and that reported by the Regional Evaluation agencies are mainly due to differences in the protocols used (Almerão et al. 2014; Buckup 2010; Rudolph and Crandall 2007, 2012; Marques et al. 2002; MMA 2013a, b). For example, the IUCN Red List shows 7.7 % of South American parastacids as threatened with extinction (and 10 species (76.9 %) as Data Deficient), while the Regional Criteria considers 6 species (46.2 %) to be endangered. Threats to the South American parastacid species are mostly from the negative impacts of human activities. In Uruguay and Brazil stream channel diversion and water pollution have affected natural crayfish habitat, while in Chile deforestation for agriculture is the main threat (Rudolph and Almerão 2015). Introduced alien crayfish such as Procambarus clarkii (Girard 1852) are also posing new threats to the freshwater ecosystems of South America, because this U.S. species has been recorded to occur in Ecuador and Brazil (Magalhães et al. 2005; Silva and Bueno 2005; Torres and Álvarez 2012). Species Distribution Models (SDMs) have demonstrated that P. clarkii represents a potentially serious threat to large areas of southern South America (Paraguay, Chile, Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil) (Palaoro et al. 2013). Several other non-native species of crayfish have also been introduced into South America from Australia: Cherax quadricarinatus (von Martens 1868), C. tenuimanus Smith 1912, and C. cainii (Austin and Bunn 2010) (Lawrence and Jones 2002; Mendoza-Alfaro et al. (2011)). These Australian species have been cultivated in commercial farms in Ecuador, Paraguay, Colombia, Peru, Uruguay, Argentina, and Chile, and it is likely that these alien species will become a greater threat to South American Parastacidae in the future.
3.15 Oceania (Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand)
The freshwater crayfish of Oceania all belong to the Parastacidae (Holdich 2002). Eleven out of the 15 genera of the Parastacidae are found in Oceania, with 9 genera endemic to Australia (Astacopsis, Engaeus, Engaewa, Euastacus, Geocharax, Gramastacus, Ombrastacoides, Spinastacoides, and Tenuibranchiurus (cf., Riek 1969, 1972; Hobbs 1988; Hansen and Richardson 2006)), one genus (Cherax) that is found in Australia, New Guinea, and nearby islands (Clark 1936; Holthuis 1986), and one genus (Paranephrops) that lives in New Zealand (Archey 1915; Hopkins 1970) (Table 3.5).
3.16 Distribution
The eleven parastacid genera found in Oceania: Astacopsis (Tasmania), Cherax (Australia and some offshore islands and New Guinea), Engaeus (Victoria and Tasmania), Engaewa (western Australia), Euastacus (eastern and southeastern Australia), Geocharax (Victoria and Tasmania), Gramastacus (southeastern Australia), Ombrastacoides (Tasmania), Paranephrops (New Zealand), Spinastacoides (Tasmania), and Tenuibranchiurus (central and eastern Australia) (Furse 2014; Lukhaup and Herbert 2008).
3.17 Conservation
The crayfish fauna of Oceania has a significantly high species diversity with 153 species in 11 genera. The threat levels and conservation status of each genus can be summarized as follows: Astacopsis spp. are threatened by habitat loss and degradation due to land clearance or by catchment disturbance for agriculture, forestry, or mining. The largest species, A. gouldi, is still threatened by illegal fishing (Threatened Species Sect. 2006) and is listed as Vulnerable under Tasmanian and Commonwealth of Australia legislation.
The common threats to Cherax have been identified by Wells et al. (1983) as habitat destruction, pollution, human exploitation, and the introduction of exotic species. The 2010 IUCN Red List assessed 17 species (50 %) in the genus Cherax (three Australian and two New Guinean species) to be threatened with extinction, with another 5 species considered to be Data Deficient.
A number of species of Engaeus are restricted-range endemics (Horwitz 1990; Harvey 2002) whose habitat is threatened by agricultural activities (including ploughing), dam construction, and clearance of riparian vegetation (Richardson and Doran 2008). Approximately 60 % of the species of Engaeus are listed as VU or EN by the IUCN Red List, or as endangered by State legislation (the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act), while four species of Engaeus (E. granulatus, E. spinicaudatus, E. sternalis, and E. urostrictus) are considered to be Critically Endangered by both the IUCN Red List and the State legislation.
Species of burrowing crayfish in the genus Engaewa require moist habitats, and arid conditions render them vulnerable to extinction (Wardell-Johnson and Horwitz 1996). Identified threats to Engaewa include the drainage of swamps for agriculture, and dam construction (Horwitz 1995; Horwitz and Adams 2000). About 40 % of species of Engaewa are assessed by the IUCN Red List as Least Concern.
The extensive distribution of Euastacus exposes many of the species in this genus to a broad array of threats including habitat destruction, pollution and reduced water quality, the introduction of exotic species, and illegal collection by humans (Furse and Coughran 2011). The 2010 IUCN Red List assessment listed 82 % of the species of Euastacus as threatened, 16 % as Least Concern, and 2 % as Data Deficient. The emerging threats to Euastacus are discussed in Furse (2014), including the effects of global climate change which especially threaten cool adapted organisms such as the members of this genus (Horwitz 1990).
Threats to species of Geocharax include habitat alteration, trampling by cattle, and phosphate run-off in agricultural areas (March and Robson 2006). Although G. gracilis is assessed as Least Concern by the 2010 IUCN Red List , the conservation status of this species was recently upgraded to Endangered under state legislation in Victoria.
Ombrastacoides denisoni is listed as Critically Endangered by the IUCN Red List and as a Priority Species by the Tasmanian Forest Practices Authority, and is currently listed as threatened under Tasmanian or Commonwealth legislation.
The 2010 conservation assessment of Paranephrops in the IUCN Red List is Least Concern, but populations of two species (P. planifrons and P. zealandicus) are now declining due to the combined effects of habitat reduction through the draining of wetlands, collection for human consumption, and predation by exotic species (Whitmore et al. 2000).
The distribution of all species of Spinastacoides extends throughout western Tasmania and each species in this genus has an extensive range (Hansen and Richardson 2006), but climate change is a potential threat (but none of these species are currently threatened).
Tenuibranchiurus is a monotypic genus that is endemic to the central and eastern coastal regions of Australia. One species (T. glypticus) is assessed by the IUCN Red List as Endangered, but it is not listed as threatened by any of the Australian conservation protocols. The main threats to species of Tenuibranchiurus are habitat destruction, pollution, and salt water intrusion (Furse et al. 2015).
In summary, 40.5 % of Oceanian parastacid species are listed as threatened with extinction and 7.8 % of species are Data Deficient.
3.19 Distribution
Crayfishes in the genus Astacoides are unevenly distributed in Madagascar. All of them are restricted to an inland area of about 60,000 km2 in the southeast highlands between 18° and 25°S and 46° and 48°E, from the Hauts Plateau near Anjozorobe in Analamanga Region, 90 km north-east of Antananarivo, to the Isaka Valley int eh Anosy Region some 700 km to the south (Hobbs 1987; Rabeharisoa 1996). Reports suggesting a broader range (Dixon 1992) including the Masoala peninsula (approximately 17°S, 50°E) and the mountains of Andapa (approximately 14°S, 49°E) are uncorroborated and not supported by specimens (Crandall 2003).
3.20 Conservation
Threats to Astacoides in Madagascar include overharvesting, habitat loss, and competition with introduced species. Crayfish harvesting is common throughout the range of Astacoides (Jones et al. 2005, 2006, 2007), and a recent study in and around Ranomafana National Park (Jones et al. 2005) suggested that the harvest of A. granulimanus is potentially sustainable under the current conditions. However, the effect of harvesting on other species such as A. betsileoensis that have a lower fecundity is a cause for concern. Differences in reproductive strategy influence a species’ vulnerability to harvesting (Milner-Gulland and Lhagvasuren 1998; Kokko et al. 2001), but aquaculture is not a viable solution, given the slow growth rates of Astacoides (Jones et al. 2007). Crandall (2003) suggested that the recent destruction of most of the lowland forests of Madagascar has had little impact on crayfish populations in the highlands (between 800 and 2000 m above sea level, asl) because slash-and-burn activities in Madagascar tend to be below 900 m asl. However, habitat loss at low altitudes could become a very serious threat to Madagascar’s crayfish because habitat destruction is taking place throughout that island and could spread to higher altitudes (Hawkins and Horning 2001). Other threats to Madagascar’s crayfish come from the introduction of non-native crayfishes and from the predatory Asian snake-head fish, Channa maculata (whose local name: is fibata) (Raberisoa et al. 1996). These threats suggest that the IUCN Red List assssments that list 28.6 % of Malagasy crayfish as endangered may prove to be an underestimate, especially because the vast majority of the species (57.1 %) are too poorly known to assess (Data Deficient).
There are no species of crayfish found naturally anywhere on continental Africa, but five species of crayfish have been introduced there, from North America (Procambarus clarkii, and P. fallax), Australia (Cherax destructor, C. quadricarinatus, C. tenuimanus), and Europe (the marbled crayfish). There are notable populations of alien crayfish established in South Africa (Holdich 1999), Sudan, Kenya, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Procambarus clarkii has spread rapidly from the intial release points of introduction in Kenya (Hobbs et al. 1989; Howard and Matindi 2003; Foster and Harper 2007).
In 2005 biologists at the University of Antananarivo in Madagascar noticed that an unusual non-native decapod (the marbled crayfish or Marmorkrebs) was being sold at markets close to the capital by fishermen who had collected them locally. To date, the marbled crayfish has been found only in the vicinity of Ambohimangakely (Antananarivo), most commonly in rice fields (Jones et al. 2007). Marbled crayfish are likely to compete with native Astacoides species, and have the potential to transmit the crayfish plague, Aphanomyces astaci that is lethal to crayfish (Jones et al. 2006; Kawai et al. 2013; Feria and Faulkes 2011). Marbled crayfish grow rapidly, much faster than species of Astacoides (that are among the slowest growing of all crayfish) (Jones et al. 2007). Marbled crayfish also are six times more fecund than species of Astacoides and marbled crayfish can breed more than once per year, compared to Astacoides that breeds once a year (Jones et al. 2005). Because of these attributes, marbled crayfish have an immense potential to outcompete native crayfish and may even be able to outcompete Madagascar’s endemic freshwater crabs (Cumberlidge et al. 2004). To date, marbled crayfish have not been found in the high altitude forested areas where Astacoides lives (Jones et al. 2007), but their present wild range overlaps with the distribution of several species of freshwater crabs.
3.21 Europe
3.21.1 Taxonomy and Conservation
Five indigenous species of astacid crayfish occur in European freshwaters (Table 3.7).
3.22 Distribution
Four European species, Astacus astacus, A. leptodactylus, Austropotamobius pallipes, and A. torrentium are heavily consumed for food and have long been translocated between Euopean countries and islands (Füreder et al. 2009). The range of A. astacus extends from Russia and Ukraine in the east, to Finland, Sweden, and Norway in the north, to Greece in the south, and the United Kingdom and France in the west. The occurrence of this species within Andorra, Cyprus, UK, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Morocco and possibly Montenegro and Italy, is probably the result of introductions from neighbouring countries (Kouba et al. 2014). Astacus leptodactylus is presently found in 32 countries (Holdich et al. 2009), including extensive areas in Russia and Ukraine (Kouba et al. 2014), and in southeast Europe including Bulgaria (Stoynov et al. 2013; Trichkova et al. 2013), Romania (Györe et al. 2013), Serbia (Simić et al. 2008), and Croatia (Maguire 2009; Maguire and Gottstein-Matočec 2004; Maguire et al. 2011). Astacus pachypus is reported to occur in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, European Russia, and Ukraine (Holdich et al. 2009). Austropotamobius pallipes has a wide distribution throughout Europe (Holdich et al. 2009), with its western limits in Portugal (but it is now thought to be extinct there), its eastern limits in Montenegro, its southern limits in Spain, and its northern limits in Scotland. Austropotamobius torrentium is found in at least 20 countries in central and southeastern Europe (Holdich et al. 2009; Kouba et al. 2014) including Bosnia and Herzegovina (Trožić-Borovac 2011), Serbia, Montenegro (Simić et al. 2008), and Germany (Groß et al. 2008; Martin et al. 2008). It is likely that the populations of this species in England may have originally been introduced there from France (Kouba et al. 2014; Grandjean et al. 1997; Diéguez-Uribeondo et al. 2008), and that populations in Sardinia may also be the result of past introductions (Bertocchi et al. 2010).
3.23 Conservation
The IUCN Red List assesses 40 % of astacids as endangered with another 40 % being too poorly known to assess (Data Deficient). EU countries have a regional list of criteria for the designation of endangered species (the EU Habitat Directive) that has 6 criteria or levels (http://lhnet.org/eu-habitat-directive/). The EU Habitat Directive protocols assess 60 % of European astacid species as endangered species. Austropotamobius torrentium is Data Deficient according to the IUCN Red List, but it is an endangered species according to the EU Habitat Directive regional criteria Appendix V (animal and plant species of community interest whose capture in the wild and exploitation may be subject to management measures). This situation is complicated by the fact that A. pallipes may be a species complex formed by two distinct species, A. pallipes and A. italicus (Fratini et al. 2005) according to molecular analyses by Santucci et al. (1997), Grandjean et al. (2002), and Pedraza-Lara et al. (2010). Reports of the recent population and distribution trends of Astacus pachypus are considered here to be speculative (Kouba et al. 2014).
A number of European species of indigenous crayfish are in decline and there are growing concerns that unless there is concerted action to conserve them they will be progressively replaced by invasive non-indigenous crayfish species in most or all of their range (Peay and Füreder 2011; Tricarico et al. 2010; Weinländer and Füreder 2009). North American and Australian crayfish species have been introduced into European freshwaters since the end of the 19th century. For example, U.S. crayfish such as the spiny-cheek crayfish, Orconectes limosus, the signal crayfish, Pacifastacus leniusculus, and the red swamp crayfish, Procambarus clarkii, have all been introduced into European waters between 1890 and the mid-1970s. Similarly, Australian crayfish such as Cherax destructor and C. quadricarinatus, and North American crayfish such as Orconectes immunis, O. limosus, O. juvenilis, O. cf. virilis, Procambarus cf. acutus, have all been recorded from European freshwaters (Füreder 2015). The Marmorkrebs or marbled crayfish (Scholtz et al. 2003) appears to be a hybrid that originated in captivity in aquaria in Germany and reproduces by parthenogenesis (virgin females produce fertile eggs without needing to mate with a male) which is the first time that this strategy has been reported for any decapod crustacean. The marbled crayfish was formally named as Procambarus fallax form virginalis (Martin et al. 2010). Rumors of the existence of the marbled crayfish first surfaced in online discussions by amateur aquarium enthusiasts, who were aware of an enigmatic crayfish species of unclear origin. Marbled crayfish were first sold by an aquarium shop in Germany in the mid-1990s (Vogt et al. 2004). Since then, reports of wild populations of marbled crayfish living in European freshwaters include Germany (Martin et al. 2010; Chucholl and Pfeiffer 2010; Chucholl et al. 2012), the Netherlands (Holdich and Pöckl 2007), Italy (Marzano et al. 2009), Sweden (Bohman et al. 2013), and Slovakia (Stloukal 2009).
3.24 Asia
3.24.1 Taxonomy and Conservation
3.25 Distribution
Large areas of Asia lack crayfish but there is a single genus Cambaroides that is native to the eastern corner of the continent in far-eastern Russia (ranging from the northern part of Sakhalin Island, the Amur River and the Ussuri River basin), the Korean Peninsula, northern China, Mongolia, and Hokkaido and northern Honshu in Japan (Kawai 2012; Kawai and Arai 2000; Kawai et al. 2015) (Table 3.8).
3.26 Conservation
The IUCN Red List shows that four species (Cambaroides dauricus, C. japonicus, C. schrenckii, C. similis) are too poorly known to assess (Data Deficient), and that two species (C. wladiwostokensis and C. koshewnikowi) have not been assessed (NA). However, the Government of Mongolia protects C. dauricus as an endangered species (Ministry for Nature and the Environment at Mongolia 1997), and The Environmental Agency and other official organizations of Japan have designed C. japonicus as an endangered species (Kawai and Fitzpatrick 2004). In Russia, C. schrenckii was listed as threatened in the Red Data book of the Sakhalin region in the Russian Federation (as Cambaroides sachalinensis Birstein and Vinogradow 1934, a junior synonym of C. schrenckii) (Kawai et al. 2013; Labay 2000). Populations of Cambaroides wladivostokiensis in Russia have been declining sharply over the past several decades due to habitat loss, particularly along the rivers flowing into the Peter the Great Bay which is where their main distribution lies (Barabanshchikov 2003; Marin 2013). Cambaroides koshewnikowi (Starobogatov 1995) is found in the Amur River delta, the Nikolaevsk-na-Amure estuary, and in the Tatar Strait where it lives in both fresh water and brackish water. However, there have been no records of C. koshewnikowi for the last 30 years and it may even be extinct (Kawai et al. 2015). In Korea, C. similis is ranked as a “monitored species”, which means that this crayfish is a candidate for recognition as an endangered species (Kored 2015). The criteria used in the Korean red list protocols are evaluated and updated every 5 years based on monitoring. The most recent evaluation recognises C. similis as an endangered species (G. S. Min, personal communication). The IUCN Red List records all species of Cambaroides as Data Deficient (Richman et al. 2015), but recent research (Kawai and Takahata 2010; Labay 2000; present chapter) suggests that all species of Cambaroides might be threatened with extinction in their native ranges, and that one species may already be extinct. Clearly, conservation actions are urgently needed.
Interestingly, C. schrenckii has been illegally introduced by anglers into Russian freshwaters beyond its natural range since the 1970s, and has also been legally live-stocked in rivers and water reservoirs in and near Vladivostok (Barabanshchikov 2003; Kawai and Min 2005). Subsequently, the range of this species has expanded on its own following flooding and now includes rivers and reservoirs in the Bay of Peter the Great and in the eastern part of Primorye region as well as basins of the Ussuri River and Khanka Lake (Barabanshchikov 2003). In those areas where C. schrenckii is an alien species it has had a negative impact on native crayfishes such as C. dauricus and C. wladivostokiensis that are now endangered because their populations have drastically declined or have become locally extinct following contact with C. schrenckii (Barabanshchikov 2003).
Astacus leptodactylus Eschscholtz, 1823 is a large-sized species that is endemic to Europe and which impacts the European river ecosystems wherever it is found (Füreder 2015). In August 2012, this western European crayfish was reported from Siberia in far-eastern Russia (Kawai et al. 2015) which will probably become a new threat to the native ecosystems in Asia.
In 1997 KBS, a broadcasting company in South Korea, announced that the red swamp crayfish, Procambarus clarkii had been found for the first time in a lake in Yongsan Park, Seoul City. This crayfish population has now become well established in water bodies around Seoul and its distributional range is slowly increasing. Live individuals of P. clarkii are imported into Korea from other Asian countries and sold at pet shops in markets in major cities such as Seoul, and it is highly probable that some of these individuals have been released in the rivers around Seoul City (HS Ko, personal communication).
Two exotic species of crayfish, P. clarkii and Pacifastacus leniusculus, have been introduced into Japan. Procambarus clarkii was introduced into Kamakura City, Honshu on 12th May, 1927 by a private company (Kawai and Kobayashi 2006), and has since spread across the Japanese Archipelago. Procambarus leniusculus was released into Hokkaido Prefecture on 28th July, 1930, and was subsequently released in Shiga Prefecture, on 4th November, 1927, by the Japanese Government (Kawai et al. 2003). Current localities of P. leniusculus are Hokkaido, Fukushima, Nagano, Chiba, Fukui, Shiga, where they are having a negative impact on native Japanese ecosystems (Nakata and Goshima 2003, 2006). In 2007, several individuals of the parthenogenetic marbled crayfish Procambarus fallax f. virginalis (Scholtz et al. 2003) were collected from Sapporo City, Hokkaido, Japan (Kawai and Takahata 2010). This is of concern because this parthenogenetic highly fecund macroinvertebrate has the portential to constitute a serious threat to freshwater systems in Japan, especially if it gains access to rice fields (Faulkes et al. 2012). So far, there have been no further records of the marbled crayfish in Japan.
It is likely that P. clarkii has not invaded the Primorye Territory in far-eastern Russia near to the border with China but this crayfish is intensively cultured by China in large ponds (Kawai et al. 2015).
3.27 Threats and Conservation Issues
Recent molecular studies have shown that several widespread species of crayfish (such as Cambaroides japonicus (Koizumi et al. 2012) and Pacifastacus leniusculus (Larson and Williams 2015) may be species complexes that include one or more cryptic species (Füreder 2015). The presence of possible cryptic new species is of concern to crayfish taxonomists and conservation specialists because the number of endangered species is likely to increase if some of the existing species prove to include cryptic new species with a small population and a narrow distribution.
The IUCN Red List is the most reliable source when seeking the conservation status of a species, but it needs to updated regularly every time new data on a species population levels, distributional ranges, or threats are collected. Richman et al. (2015) summarizes the results of a global conservation assessment of every species of crayfish known, and draws on the expertise of 23 crayfish specialists from a number of countries. The IUCN Red List includes data on the major global threats to species-rich geographical regions such as climate-change, logging, invasive species, disease, urban development, agriculture, dam management, harvesting, pollution, and human disturbance (Richman et al. 2015). However, the IUCN Red List contains many Data Deficient species that are often assessed as endangered when regional conservation protocols are applied. For example, all Asian cambaroid crayfishes are assessed as Data Deficient by the IUCN Red List, but all of them are assessed as endangered species (and one of these, Cambaroides koshewnikowi, may even be extinct).
Freshwater crayfish distribution globally is mostly in the temperate regions of the world (Fig. 3.1) where urbanization and agricultural exploitation are intense. Crayfish are aquatic animals that depend on permanent water sources and they reproduce by direct development rather than producing planktonic larval stages, and this adaptation alone contributes to their isolation, high speciation rate, and endemism. Gelder and Williams (2015) point out that crayfish have numerous kinds of symbiontic organisms on their bodies that would also become extinct should crayfish species disappear. The introduction of alien crayfish species is prohibited in Oceania because non-native crayfish species particularly impact restricted-range endemic endangered species. Figures 3.2 and 3.3 show the native distributions of freshwater crayfish in Africa, Asia, Europe, and North, Central, and South America, as well as the expanding ranges of alien species such as Procambarus clarkii and P. leniusculus in Europe, Japan, Africa, and South America.
Current distribution of the signal crayfish, Pacifastacus leniusculus
Current distribution of the red swamp crayfish Procambarus clarkii
The native range of P. clarkii spans from northern Mexico to a number of states in the USA including Florida, Illinois, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Tennessee, and Texas. Procambarus clarkii has been widely introduced across the globe in the past 20 years not only to other states in the USA (Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Indiana, Maryland, North Carolina, Nevada, Ohio, Oregon, South Carolina, Utah, and Virginia, West Virginia), but also to Europe (Belgium, Cyprus, France, Germany, Italy, Majorca, The Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland, United Kingdom), Central and South America (Belize, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Venezuela), Africa (Egypt, Kenya, South Africa, South Sudan, Sudan, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe), and Asia (China, Japan, Philippines, Taiwan) (Hobbs et al. 1989; Holdich 1999; Howard and Matindi. 2003; Foster and Harper 2007) (http://maps.iucnredlist.org/map.html?id=153877). Furthermore, recent studies have reported the presence of P. clarkii in Austria (Füreder 2015), Brazil (Amazon, Paraguay/Lower Parana River Basin, San Paolo) (Magalhães et al. 2005; Silva and Bueno 2005; Torres and Álvarez 2012), Mexico (Chiapas Region, Alvarez and Villalobos 2015), and South Korea (near Seoul City, Kawai pers. obs.).
Although the native range of P. leniusculus is well known in the western colder regions of North America, it is still not sufficiently understood in detail (Larson and Olden 2011, 2013; Martinez 2012). Given this provisio, P. leniusculus has been introduced into many countries well beyond its native range over the last century including Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Croatia, Cyprus, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Russian Federation (Europe), Slovenia, Slovakia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom (Füreder 2015; Hefti and Stucki 2006), as well as in Japan (Kawai and Takahata 2010), and some of the U.S. western states including California, Nevada, and Utah. The areas where the distributions of alien crayfishes overlap and co-exist are noticeably expanding.
Other North American cambarid species (Orconectes immunis, O. juvenilis, O. limosus, O. cf. virilis, Procambarus cf. acutus, P. fallax f. virginalis), and Australian parastacid species (Cherax destructor, and C. quadricarinatus) have been introduced into Europe and Orconectes virilis and Cherax quadricarinatus have been introduced into Central America. Populations of Australian parastacids Cherax destructor, C. quadricarinatus, C. tenuimanus, and the North American cambarid P. clarkii are have become established in many parts of continental Africa, and the parthenogenetic marbled crayfish P. fallax f. virginalis is established and is spreading in Madagascar. The parthenogenetic marbled crayfish represents a new threat for global crayfish conservation because this alien species outcompetes native crayfish and has the potential to transmit crayfish plague (Jimenez and Faulkes 2010; Jones et al. 2007; Kawai and Takahata 2010; Feria and Faulkes 2011).
3.28 Conclusion
-
1.
Freshwater crayfish are mainly distributed in the temperate parts of the southern and northern hemispheres, although there is a significant difference in the species richness among geographical regions. The most species rich area is found in the USA and Mexico, east of the Rocky Mountains, with 432 species represented by 11 genera one family (Cambaridae) while the most species-poor region is far-east Asia with only 6 species in a single genus, Cambaroides.
-
2.
All members of Astacoidea can construct burrows, which is probably an apomorphic adaptation for life in freshwater.
-
3.
The conservation status of all crayfish species worldwide has been assessed using the IUCN Red List protocols as well as by regional governmental red data lists. It is clear that there are a significant number of species that are threatened with extinction: 22.1 % of Cambaridae in Canada and the USA, 40 % of American Astacidae, 29.3 % of American Cambaridae (in Mexico and Central America), 69.2 % of South American Parastacidae, 34 % of Oceanian Parastacidae, 28.6 % of Madagascan Parastacidae, 40 % of European Astacidae, and 100 % of Asian Cambaridae (Table 3.9).
Table 3.9 Summary of the 2010 IUCN Red List and regional red list of freshwater crayfish (data: Kawai et al. 2015) -
4.
The present range of two alien crayfishes , Pacifastacus leniusculus and Procambarus clarkii, has been updated here. The distributional ranges of these two species are spreading in Asia, Africa, South America, and Europe and their impact on the native ecosystems and native species of crayfishes is becoming of increasing global concern. The new threat presented by the exotic parthenogenetic marbled crayfish, Procambarus fallax f. virginalis which was first found in European aquaria, has now been reported living in wild populations in Europe, Madagascar, and Asia (only one record).
References
Abrahamsson, S. A. A., & Goldman, C. R. (1970). Distribution, density and production of the crayfish Pacifastacus leniusculus Dana in Lake Tahoe, California-Nevada. Oikos, 21, 83–91.
Ahn, D. H., Kawai, T., Kim, S. J., Rho, H. S., Jung, J. W., Kim, W., et al. (2006). Phylogeny of northern hemisphere freshwater crayfishes based on 16S rRNA gene analysis. Korean Journal of Genetics, 28, 185–192.
Almerão, M. P., Rudolph, E., Souty-Grosset, C., Crandall, K. A., Buckup, L., Amouret, J., et al. (2014). The native South American crayfishes (Crustacea, Parastacidae): State of knowledge and conservation status. Aquatic Conservation Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems,. doi:10.1002/aqc.2488.
Alvarez, F., Villalobos, J. L., Elías-Gutiérrez, M., & Rivera, G. (2011). Crustáceos dulceacuícolas y terrestres de Chiapas. In F. Alvarez (Ed.), Chiapas, Estudios sobre su diversidad biológica (pp. 209–298). Instituto de Biología: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City.
Alvarez, F., & Villalobos, L. (2015). The crayfish of Middle America. In T. Kawai, Z. Faulkes, & G. Scholtz (Eds.), Freshwater crayfish: A global overview (pp. 448–463). Florida: CRC-Press.
Archey, G. (1915). The fresh-water crayfish of New Zealand. Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New Zealand Institute, 47, 295–315.
Armendáriz, G. Y. (2011). Patrones de distribución y riqueza de especies de los acociles (Decapoda: Cambaridae) de México. (M.Sc. Thesis), Graduate Program in Biological Sciences, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City.
Barabanshchikov, E. I. (2003). Sovremennoe rasprostranenie rechnykh rakov roda Cambaroides (Decapoda: Astacoidei: Cambaridae) v Primorskom krae i veroyatnye prichiny kolebaniy ikh chislennosti. Chteniya pamyati V. Ya. Levanidova. Vladivostok: Dal’nauka, 2, 172–177 (English translated title: Contemporaneous distribution of crayfishes of genus Cambaroides (Decapoda: Astacoidei: Cambaridae) in Primorye Territory, with some remarks on probable reasons of their quantity fluctuations. Vladimir Ya. Levanidov’s Biennial Memorial Meeting. Vladivostok: Dal’nauka, 2, 172–177).
Bertocchi, S., Brusconi, S., Gherardi, F., & Chiesa, L. A. (2010). Prima segnalazione del gambero minacciato Austropotamobius pallipescomplex in Sardegna. [Article in Italian]. In: Proceedings of the 13th conference Italian association of freshwater hydrologists, Sansepolcro, Italy, 12–13 Nov 2010, p. 52.
Bohman, P., Edsman, L., Martin, P., & Scholtz, G. (2013). The first Marmorkrebs (Decapoda: Astacida: Cambaridae) in Scandinavia. Bioinvasion Record, 2, 227–232.
Bouchard, R. W. (1977). Distribution, systematic status and ecological notes on five poorly known species of crayfishes in western North America (Decapoda: Astacidea and Cambaridae). Freshwater Crayfish, 3, 409–423.
Boyko, C. B. (2015). Crayfish of Africa. In T. Kawai, Z. Faulkes, & G. Scholtz (Eds.), Freshwater crayfish: A global overview (pp. 583–893). Florida: CRC-Press.
Boyko, C. B., Ravoahangimalala, O. R., Randriamasimanana, D., & Razafindrazaka, T. H. (2005). Astacoides hobbsi, a new crayfish (Crustacea: Decapoda: Parastacidae) from Madagascar. Zootaxa, 1091, 41–51.
Braband, A., Kawai, T., & Scholtz, G. (2006). The phylogenetic position of the East Asian freshwater crayfish Cambaroideswithin the northern hemisphere Astacoidea (Crustacea, Decapoda, Astacida) based on molecular data. Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research, 44, 17–24.
Bracken-Grissom, H. D., Ahyong, S. T., Wilkinson, R. D., Feldmann, R. M., Schweitzer, C. E., Breinholt, J. W., et al. (2014). The emergence of lobsters: Phylogenetic relationships, morphological evolution and divergence time comparisons of an ancient group (Decapoda: Achelata, Astacidea, Glypheidea, Polychelida). Systematic Biology, 63(4), 457–479. doi:10.1093/sysbio/syu008.
Buckup, L. (2003). Família Parastacidae. In: G. A. S. Melo (Ed.), Manual de identificação dos Crustacea Decapoda de água doce do Brasil Editora Loyola, (pp. 117–141). São Paulo.
Buckup, L. (2010). IUCN 2013. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.2.
Buckup, L., & Rossi, A. (1980). O gênero Parastacus no Brasil (Crustacea, Decapoda, Parastacidae). Revista Brasileira de Zoologia, 40, 663–681.
Campos, E., & Contreras, S. (1985). First record of Orconectes virilis (Hagen) (Decapoda, Cambaridae) from Mexico. Crustaceana, 49, 218–219.
Campos, E., & Rodríguez-Almaraz, G. A. (1992). Distribution of the Red Swamp Crayfish Procambarus clarkii (Girard, 1852) (Decapoda: Cambaridae) in Mexico: An update. Journal of Crustacean Biology, 12, 627–630.
Center for Biological Diversity. (2010). Petition to list 404 aquatic, riparian and wetland species from the Southeastern United States as threatened or endangered under the Endangered Species Act. Center for Biological Diversity, pp. 1145.
Chang-Fu, M., & Chun-Lin, Y. (1959). Northeastern crayfish Cambaroides dauricus. Chinese Journal of Zoology Beijing, 10, 453–456. (in Chinese).
Chucholl, C., & Pfeiffer, M. (2010). First evidence for an established Marmorkrebs (Decapoda, Astacida, Cambaridae) population in Southwestern Germany, in syntopic occurrence with Orconectes limosus (Rafinesque 1817). Aquatic Invasions, 5, 405–412.
Chucholl, C., Morawetz, K., & Groß, H. (2012). The clones are coming—strong increase in Marmorkrebs (Procambarus fallax (Hagen 1870) f. virginalis) records from Europe. Aquatic Invasion, 7, 511–519.
Clark, E. (1936). The freshwater and land crayfishes of Australia. Memoirs of the National Museum of Victoria, 10, 5–58.
Crandall, K. A. (2003). Parastacidae, Astacoides, freshwater crayfishes. In S. M. Goodman & J. P. Benstead (Eds.), The Natural History of Madagascar (pp. 608–612). Chicago, USA: The Chicago University Press.
Crandall, K. A., & Buhay, J. E. (2008). Global diversity of crayfish (Astacidae, Cambaridae, and Parastacidae: Decapoda) in freshwater. Hydrobiologia, 595, 295–301.
Crandall, K. A., Fetzner, J. W., Jr., Jara, C. G., & Buckup, L. (2000a). On the phylogenetic positioning of the South American freshwater crayfish genera (Decapoda: Parastacidae). Journal of Crustacean Biology, 20, 530–540.
Crandall, K. A., Harris, D. J., & Fetzner, J. W., Jr. (2000b). The monophyletic origin of freshwater crayfish estimated from nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequences. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 267, 1679–1686.
Crandall, K. A. (2016). Collecting and processing freshwater crayfish. Journal of Crustacean Biology,. doi:10.1163/1937240X-00002466.
Cumberlidge, N., Reed, S. K., & Boyko, C. B. (2004). Distribution patterns of the Malagasy freshwater crabs (Crustacea: Decapoda: Brachyura). Journal of Natural History, 38, 1133–1157.
Diéguez-Uribeondo, J., Royo, F., Souty-Grosset, C., Ropiquet, A., & Grandjean, F. (2008). Low genetic avariability of the white-clawed crayfish in the Iberian Peninsula: Its origin and management implications. Aquatic Conservation, 18, 19–31.
Dixon, H. (1992). Species identification and described habitats of the crayfish genus Astacoides (Decapoda: Parastacoidae) in the Ranomafana National Park region of Madagascar. Ranomafana: Ranomafana National Park Project.
Ellis, M. J. (1999). Species invasions and replacements in a native crayfish community. (PhD Dissertation), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Ellis, M. J. (2005). Crayfish barrier flume study. Cassel, California: Spring Rivers Ecological Sciences.
Eng, L. L., & Daniels, R. A. (1982). Life history, distribution, and status of Pacifastacus fortis (Decapoda: Astacidae). California Fish and Game, 68, 197–212.
Faulkes, Z., Feria, T. P., & Muñoz, J. (2012). Do Marmorkrebs, Procambarus fallaxf. virginalis, threaten freshwater Japanese ecosystems? Aquatic. Biosystems, 8, 13.
Feria, T. P., & Faulkes, Z. (2011). Forecasting the distribution of Marmorkrebs, a parthenogenetics crayfish with high invasive potential, in Madagascar, Europe, and North America. Aquatic Invasions, 6, 55–67.
Foster, J., & Harper, D. (2007). Status and ecosystem interactions of the invasive Louisianan red swamp crayfish Procambarus clarkiiin East Africa Springer Series in Invasion Ecology. In F. Gherardi (Ed.), Invading nature (pp. 91–101). Dordrecht: Springer.
Fratini, S., Zaccara, S., Barbaresi, S., Grandjean, F., Souty-Grosset, C., Crosa, G., et al. (2005). Phylogeography of the threatened crayfish (genus Austropotamobius) in Italy: Implications for its taxonomy and conservation. Heredity, 94, 108–118.
Füreder, L. (2015). Taxonomy and distribution of native species and non-native species in Europe. In T. Kawai, Z. Faulkes, & G. Scholtz (Eds.), Freshwater crayfish: A global overview (pp. 597–624). Florida: CRC-Press.
Füreder, L., Weinländer, M., & Perlinger, H. (2009). Die Flusskrebse Österreichs. In L. Füreder (Ed.), Flusskrebse, Biologie – Ökologie – Gefährdung, Veröffentlichungen des Naturmuseums Südtirol (Vol. 6, pp. 82–91). Wien-Bozen: Folio Verlag.
Furse, J. M. (2014). The freshwater crayfish fauna of Australia: Update on conservation status and threats. In D. C. J. Yeo, N. Cumberlidge & S. Klaus, (Eds.), Crustaceana monographs, 19 (Advances in freshwater decapod systematics and biology), (Vol 6, pp. 273–296).
Furse, J. M., & Coughran, J. (2011). An assessment of the distribution, biology, threatening processes and conservation status of the freshwater crayfish, genus Euastacus (Decapoda: Parastacidae), in Continental Australia. II. Threats, conservation assessments and key findings. Crustaceana Monographs 15 (Special edition: New frontiers in crustacean biology), (pp. 253–263).
Furse, J. M., Burnham, Q. F., Dawkins, K. L., & Richardson, A. M. M. (2015). The freshwater crayfish of the oceania region. In T. Kawai, Z. Faulkes, & G. Scholtz (Eds.), Freshwater crayfish: A global overview (pp. 485–582). Florida: CRC-Press.
Gelder, S. R., & Williams, B. W. (2015). Global Overview of Branchiobdellida (Annelida: Clitellata). In T. Kawai, Z. Faulkes, & G. Scholtz (Eds.), Freshwater crayfish: A global overview (pp. 628–653). Florida: CRC-Press.
Grandjean, F., Souty-Grosset, C., Raimond, R., & Holdich, D. M. (1997). Geographical variation of mitochondrial DNA between populations of the white-clawed crayfish Austropotamobius pallipes. Freshwater Biology, 37, 493–501.
Grandjean, F., Frelon-Raimond, M., & Souty-Grosset, C. (2002). Compilation of molecular data for the phylogeny of the genus Austropotamobius: One species or several? Bulletin Français de la Pêche et de la Pisciculture, 367, 671–680.
Groß, H., Burk, C., & Hill, A. (2008). Die Flusskrebsfauna in NRW. Natural Resources Wales, 4, 52–56.
Grow, L. (1981). Burrowing behavior in the crayfish, Cambarus diogenes diogenes. Animal Behaviour, 29, 351–356.
Györe, K., Józsa, V., & Gál, D. (2013). The distribution of crayfish (Decapoda: Astacidae, Cambaridae) population in Cris and Mures rivers crossing the Romanian-Hungarian border. AACL Bioflux, 6, 18–26.
Hansen, B., & Richardson, A. M. M. (2006). A revision of the Tasmanian endemic freshwater crayfish genus Parastacoides (Crustacea: Decapoda: Parastacidae). Invertebrate Systematics, 20, 713–769.
Hart, C. W. Jr. (1994). A dictionary of non-scientifi c names of freshwater crayfishes (Astacoidea and Parastacoidea), including other words and phrases incorporating crayfish names. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology, 38, i–iii+1–127.
Harvey, M. (2002). Short range endemism among the Australian fauna: Some examples from non-marine environments. Invertebrate Systematics, 16, 555–570.
Hasiotis, S. T., & Kirkland, J. I. (1997). Crayfish fossils and burrows (Decapoda: Cambaridae) Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation, Colorado Plateau, U.S.A. Freshwater Crayfish, 11, 106–120.
Hasiotis, H. S., & Thomas, A. (1997). A short note about crayfish burrows from the Paleocene-Eocene, Clarion Formation southwestern Utah, U.S.A. Freshwater Crayfish, 11, 121–129.
Hawkins, F., & Horning, N. (2001). Forest cover change and control areas. Antananarivo, Madagascar: Projet d’Appui a la Gestion de l’Environnement.
Hefti, D., & Stucki, P. (2006). Crayfish management for Swiss waters. Bulletin Français de la Pêche et de la Pisciculture, 380–381, 937–950.
Hernández, L., Maeda-Martínez, A. M., Ruiz-Campos, G., Rodríguez-Almaraz, G., Alonzo-Rojo, F., & Sainz, J. C. (2008). Geographic expansion of the invasive red crayfish Procambarus clarkii (Girard, 1852) (Crustacea. Decapoda) in Mexico. Biological Invasions, 10, 977–984.
Hobbs, H. H., Jr. (1942). The crayfishes of Florida. Biological series, University of Florida Publications, 3, 1–179.
Hobbs, H. H., Jr. (1987). A review of the crayfish genus Astacoides (Decapoda: Parastacidae). Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology, 443, 1–50.
Hobbs, H. H., Jr. (1988). Crayfish distribution, adaptive radiation and evolution. In D. M. Holdich & R. S. Lowery (Eds.), Freshwater crayfish: Biology management and exploitation (pp. 52–82). London: Croom Helm.
Hobbs, H. H., Jr., Jas, J. P., & Huner, J. V. (1989). A review of global crayfish introductions with particular emphasis on two North American species (Decapoda, Carnbaridae). Crustaceana, 56, 299–316.
Holdich, D. M. (1999). The negative effects of established crayfish introductions. In F. Gherardi & D. M. Holdich (Eds.), Crustacean Issue 11: Crayfish in Europe as Alien Species. How to make the best of a bad situation? (pp. 31–47). Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema.
Holdich, D. M. (2002). General biology: Background and functional morphology. In D. M. Holdich (Ed.), Biology of freshwater crayfish (pp. 3–29). Oxford, England: Blackwell Science.
Holdich, D. M., & Pöckl, M. (2007). Invasive crustaceans in European inland waters. In F. Gherardi (Ed.), Freshwater bioinvaders: Profiles, distribution, and threats (pp. 29–75). Dordrecht: Springer.
Holdich, D. M., & Lowery, R. S. (1988). Freshwater crayfish: Biology management and exploitation. London: Croom Helm.
Holdich, D. M., Reynolds, J. D., Souty-Grosset, C., & Sibley, P. J. (2009). A review of the ever increasing threat to European crayfish from non-indigenous crayfish species. Knowledge and Management of Aquatic Ecosystems, 394–395, 11.
Holthuis, L. B. (1986). The freshwater crayfish of New Guinea. FreshwCrayfish, 6, 48–58.
Hopkins, C. L. (1970). Systematics of the New Zealand freshwater crayfish Paranephrops (Crustacea: Decapoda: Parastacidae). New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 4, 278–291.
Horwitz, P. (1990). A taxonomic revision of species in the freshwater crayfish genus EngaeusErichson (Decapoda: Parastacidae). Invertebrate Systematics, 4, 427–614.
Horwitz, P. (1995). The conservation status of Australian freshwater crayfish: Review and update. Freshwater Crayfish, 10, 70–80.
Horwitz, P., & Adams, M. (2000). The systematics, biogeography and conservation status of species in the freshwater crayfish genus EngaewaRiek (Decapoda: Parastacidae) from south-western Australia. Invertebrate Taxonmy, 14, 655–680.
Howard, G. W., & Matindi, S. W. (2003). Alien invasive species in Africa’s wetlands: Some threats and solutions. IUCN—The World Conservation Union Regional Office for Eastern Africa, Nairobi
Huner, J. V., & Barr, L. E. (1991). Red swamp crayfish: Biology, culture, and exploitation. Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Sea Grant College System.
Huxley, T. H. (1896). The crayfish: An introduction to the study of zoology. London: Kegan Paul.
IUCN Standards and Petitions Subcommittee. (2013). Guidelines for Using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria. Version 10. Prepared by the Standards and Petitions Subcommittee
Jimenez, S. A., & Faulkes, Z. (2010). Establishment and care of a laboratory colony of parthenogenetic crayfish, Marmorkrebs. Invertebrate Rearing, 1, 10–18.
Johnson, J. E. (1986). Inventory of Utah crayfish with notes on current distribution. Great Basin National, 46, 625–631.
Jones, J. P. G., Andriahajaina, F. B., Hockley, N. J., Balmford, A., & Ravoahangimalala, O. R. (2005). A multidisciplinary approach to assessing the sustainability of freshwater crayfish harvesting in Madagascar. Conservation Biology, 19, 1863–1871.
Jones, J. P. G., Andriahajaina, F. B., Ranambinintsoa, E. H., Hockley, N. J., & Ravoahangimalala, O. R. (2006). The economic importance of freshwater crayfish harvesting in Madagascar and the potential of community-based conservation to improve management. Oryx, 40, 168–17.
Jones, J. P. G., Andriahajaina, F. B., Hockley, N. J., Crandall, K. A., & Ravoahangimalala, O. R. (2007). The ecology and conservation status of Madagascar’s endemic freshwater crayfish (Parastacidae; Astacoides). Freshwater Biology, 52, 1820–1833.
Kawai, T. (2012). Morphology of the mandible and gill of the Asian freshwater crayfish Cambaroides (Decapoda: Cambaridae) with implications for their phylogeny. Journal of Crustacean Biology, 32, 15–23.
Kawai, T., & Arai, K. (2000). Exploration of Cambaroides dauricusin Mongolia. Cancer, 9, 29–32. (in Japanese).
Kawai, T., & Fitzpatrick, J. F., Jr. (2004). Redescription of Cambaroides japonicus (De Haan 1841) (Crustacea: Decapoda: Cambaridae) with allocation of a type locality and month of collection of types. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 117, 23–34.
Kawai, T., & Kobayashi, Y. (2006). Origin and ciurrent distribution of the alien crayfish, Procambarus clarkii (Girard, 1852) in Japan. Crustaceana, 78, 1143–1149.
Kawai, T., & Min, G. S. (2005). Re-examination of type material of Cambaroides similis (Koelbel 1892) (Decapoda: Cambaridae) with a lectotype designation, re-description, and evaluation of geographical variation. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 118, 777–793.
Kawai, T., & Takahata, M. (2010). Biology of crayfish. Sapporo: Hokkaido University Press.
Kawai, T., Mitamura, T., & Ohtaka, A. (2003). The taxonomic status of the introduced north American signal crayfish, Pacifastacus leniusculus (Dana, 1852) in Japan, and the source of specimens in the newly reported population in Fukushima Prefecture. Crustaceana, 77, 861–870.
Kawai, T., Labay, V. S., & Filipova, L. (2013). Taxonomic re-examination of Cambaroides (Decapoda: Cambaridae) with a re-description of C. schrenckiifrom Sakhalin Island Russia and phylogenetic discussion of the Asian cambarids based on morphological characteristics. Journal of Crustacean Biology, 33, 702–717.
Kawai, T., Min, G. S., Barabanshcikov, E., Labay, V., & Ko, H. S. (2015). Asia. In T. Kawai, Z. Faulkes, & G. Scholtz (Eds.), Freshwater crayfish: A global overview (pp. 311–368). Florida, USA: CRC-Press.
Koese, B., Soes, D. M. (2011). De Nederland riverkreddften (Astacoidea and Parstacoidea). Entomologische Tabellen 6, Nederland Faunistische Mededelingen, Leiden
Koizumi, I., Nishikawa, N., Kawai, T., Azuma, N., & Masuda, R. (2012). Loss of genetic diversity means loss of geographical information: The Endangered Japanese crayfish exhibits remarkable historical footprints. PLoS ONE, 7, 1–11.
Kokko, H., Lindstrom, J., & Ranta, E. (2001). Life histories and sustainable harvesting. In J. D. Reynolds, G. M. Mace, K. H. Redford, & J. G. Robinson (Eds.), Conservation of exploited species (pp. 301–322). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
KORED. (2015). http://www.korearedlist.go.kr/redlist/eng/exlist/exlist.jsp?sch_gbn=wc&middle=3&minor=2
Kouba, A., Petrusek, A., & Kozák, P. (2014). Continental-wide distribution of crayfish species in Europe: Update and maps. Knowledge and Management of Aquatic Ecosystems, 413, 5.
Labay, V. S. (2000). Sakhalin river crayfi sh Cambaroides sachalinensisBirstein et Vinogradow, 1934. In N. I. Onishchenko, V. A. Nechaev, G. A. Voronov, S. N. Safronov, V. S. Labay, & Z. V. Revjakina (Eds.), Red data of Sakhalin Region (pp. 178–179). Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk (in Russian): The Sakhalin Book Publishing house.
Larson, E. R., & Olden, J. D. (2011). The state of crayfish in the Pacific Northwest. Fisheries, 36, 60–73.
Larson, E. R., & Olden, J. D. (2013). Crayfish occupancy and abundance in lakes of the Pacific Northwest, USA. Freshwater Science, 32, 94–107.
Larson, E., & Williams, B. (2015). Historical biological of Pacifastacuscrayfishes and their branchiobdellidan and entocytherid ectosymbionts in Western North America. In T. Kawai, Z. Faulkes, & G. Scholtz (Eds.), Freshwater crayfish: A global overview (pp. 404–447). Florida: CRC-Press.
Larson, E. R., Abbott, C. L., Usio, N., Azuma, N., Wood, K. A., Herborg, L.-M., et al. (2012). The signal crayfish is not a single species: Cryptic diversity and invasions in the Pacific Northwest range of Pacifastacus. Freshwater Biology, 57, 1823–1838.
Lawrence, C., & Jones, C. (2002). Cherax. In D. M. Holdich (Ed.), Biology of freshwater crayfish (pp. 635–669). Oxford: Blackwell.
Light, T., Erman, D. C., Myrick, C., & Clark, J. (1995). Decline of the Shasta crayfish (Pacifastacus fortisFaxon) of northeastern California. Conservation Biology, 9, 1567–1577.
Lodge, D. M., Cronin, G., Van Donk, E., & Froelich, A. J. (1998a). Impact of herbivory on plant standing crop: Comparisons amoung biomas, between vascular and non-vascular plants, and among freshwater herbivore taxa. In E. Jeppsen, M. A. Sondergaard, M. O. Sondergaard, & K. Christofferson (Eds.), The structuring role of submerged macrophytes in lakes (pp. 149–174). New York: Springer.
Lodge, D. M., Stein, R. A., Brown, K. M., Covich, A. P., Bronmark, C., Garvey, J. E., et al. (1998b). Predicting impact of freshwater exotic species on native biodiversity: Challenges in spatial scaling. Australian Journal of Ecology, 23, 53–67.
Lodge, D. M., Taylor, C. A., Holdich, D. M., & Shurdal, J. (2000). Nonindigenous crayfishes threaten North American freshwater biodiversity. Fisheries, 25, 7–20.
Lukhaup, C., & Herbert, B. (2008). A new species of crayfish (Crustacea: Decapoda: Parastacidae) from the fly river drainage, Western Province, Papua New Guinea. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum, 52, 213–219.
Magalhães, C., Bueno, S. L. S., Bond-Buckup, G., Valenti, W. C., Silva, H. L. M., Kiyohara, F., et al. (2005). Exotic species of freshwater decapod crustaceans in the state of Sao Paulo, Brazil: Records and possible causes of their introduction. Biodiversity and Conservation, 14, 1929–1945.
Maguire, I. (2009). Die Flusskrebse Osteuropas. In: Füreder (Ed.), Flusskrebse, Biologie – Ökologie – Gefährdung, Veröffentlichungen des Naturmuseums Südtirol, (Vol. 6, pp. 92–97). Wien-Bozen: Folio Verlag.
Maguire, I., & Gottstein-Matočec, S. (2004). The distribution pattern of freshwater crayfish in Croatia. Crustaceana, 77, 25–47.
Maguire, I., Jelić, M., & Klobučar, G. (2011). Update on the distribution of freshwater crayfish in Croatia. Knowledge and Management of Aquatic Ecosystems, 401, 31.
March, T. S., & Robson, B. J. (2006). Association between burrow densities of two Australian freshwater crayfish (Engaeus sericatusand Geocharax gracilis: Parastacidae) and four riparian land uses. Aquatic Conservation, 16, 181–191.
Marin, I. N. (2013). Atlas of decapod crustaceans of Russia. Moscow: KMK Scientific Press.
Marques, A. A. B., Fontana, C. S., Vélez, E., Bencke, G. A., Schneider, M., & Reis, R. E. (2002). Lista das espécies da fauna ameaçadas de extinção no Rio Grande do Sul. Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul: FZB/MCT-PUCRS/PANGEA.
Martin, P., Pfeifer, M., & Füllner, G. (2008). First record of the stone crayfish Austropotamobius torrentium (Schrank, 1803) (Crustacea: Decapoda: Astacidae) from Saxony (Germany). Faunistische Abhandlungen (Dresden), 26, 103–108.
Martin, P., Dorn, N., Kawai, T., van der Heiden, C., & Scholtz, G. (2010). The enigmatic Marmorkrebs (marbled crayfish) is the parthenogenetic form of Procambarus fallax (Hagen 1870). Contributions to Zoology, 79, 107–118.
Martinez, P. J. (2012). Invasive crayfish in a high desert river: Implications of concurrent invaders and climate change. Aquatic Invasions, 7, 219–234.
Marzano, F. N., Scalici, M., Chiesa, S., Gherardi, F., Piccinini, A., & Gibertini, G. (2009). The first record of the marbled crayfish adds further threats to fresh waters in Italy. Aquatic Invasions, 4, 401–404.
Master, L. (1990). The imperiled status of North American aquatic animals. National Biodiversity Network, 3(1–2), 7–8.
Matsuura, S., & Hamano, T. (1984). Selection of artiicial burrows by the Japanese mantis shrimp with some notes on natural burrows. Fisheries Science, 50, 1963–1968.
Mendoza-Alfaro, R. E., Rodríguez-Almaraz, G. A., & Castillo-Alvarado, S. A. (2011). Riesgo de dispersión y posibles impactos de los acociles australianos del género Cherax en México. Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León – Conabio.
Miller, G. C. (1960). The taxonomic and certain biological aspects of the crayfish of Oregon and Washington. (Master thesis). Oregon States College, Corvallis, USA
Milner-Gulland, E. J., & Lhagvasuren, B. (1998). Population dynamics of the Mongolian gazelle Procapra gutturosa: An historical analysis. Journal of Applied Ecology, 35, 240–251.
Ministry for Nature and the Environment of Mongolia. (1997). Mongolian red book. Ulaanbaatar, (pp. 190–191). (in Russian with English).
MMA. (2013a). Parastacus nicoleti, P. pugnax y Samastacus spinifrons. In: Ministerio del Medio Ambiente del Chile. 10 Proceso de clasificación de las especies silvestres del Chile. Actas RCE 1.
MMA. (2013b) Virilastacus araucanius. In: Ministerio del Medio Ambiente del Chile. 10 Proceso de clasificación de las especies silvestres del Chile. Actas RCE 1.
Nakata, K., & Goshima, S. (2003). Competition for shelter of preferred sizes between the native crayfish species Cambaroides japonicusand the alien crayfish species Pacifastacus leniusculusin Japan in relation to prior residence, sex difference, and body size. Journal of Crustacean Biology, 23, 897–907.
Nakata, K., & Goshima, S. (2006). Asymmetry in mutual predation between the endangered Japanese native crayfish Cambaroides japonicusand the North American invasive crayfish Pacifastacus leniusculus: A possible reason for species replacement. Journal of Crustacean Biology, 26, 897–907.
Owen, C. L., Bracken-Grissom, H., Stern, D., & Crandall, K. A. (2015). A synthetic phylogeny of freshwater crayfish: Insights for conservation. Philosophical Transactions B, 370, 20140009.
Palaoro, A. V., Dalosto, M. M., Costa, G. C., & Santos, S. (2013). Niche conservatism and the potential for the crayfish Procambarus clarkiito invade South America. Freshwater Biology, 58, 1379–1391.
Peay, S., & Füreder, L. (2011). Two indigenous European crayfish under threat—how can we retain them in aquatic ecosystems for the future? Knowledge and Management of Aquatic Ecosystems, 401, 33.
Pedraza-Lara, C., Alda, F., Carranza, S., & Doadrio, I. (2010). Mitochondrial DNA structure of the Iberian populations of the white-clawed crayfish, Austropotamobius italicus italicus (Faxon, 1914). Molcular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 57, 327–342.
Pintor, L. M., Sih, A., & Bauer, M. L. (2008). Differences in aggression, activity and boldness between native and introduced populations of an invasive crayfish. Oikos, 117, 1629–1636.
Raberisoa, B., Elouard, J.-M., & Ramanankasina, E. (1996). Biogéographie des écrevisses Malgaches (Decapoda: Parastacidae). In W. R. Lourenco (Ed.), Biogéographie de Madagascar (pp. 559–562). Paris: ORSTOM.
Rabeharisoa, B. (1996). Crayfish (Parastacidae) and crabs (Potamonidae) of the Reserve Naturelle Integrale d’Andringitra, Madagascar. Fieldiana Zoology n.s. 85:155–157
Reynolds, J., & Souty-Grosset, C. (2012). Management of Freshwater Biodiversity: Crayfish as Bioindicators. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Richardson, A. M. M., & Doran, N. E. (2008). The role of burrowing crayfish in Tasmanian sedgelands. Australasian Plant Conservation, 16, 22–24.
Richman, N. I., Böhm, M., Adams, S. B., Alvarez, F., Bergey, E. A., Bunn, J. J. S., et al. (2015). Multiple drivers of decline in the global status of freshwater crayfish (Decapoda: Astacidea). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 370, 20140060.
Riegel, J. A. (1959). The systematic and distribution of crayfishes in California. California Fish and Game, 45, 29–50.
Riek, E. F. (1969). The Australian freshwater crayfish (Crustacea: Decapoda: Parastacidae), with descriptions of a new species. Australian Journal of Zoology, 17, 855–918.
Riek, E. F. (1972). The phylogeny of the parastacidae (Crustacea: Astacoidea), and description of a new genus of Australian freshwater crayfishes. Australian Journal of Zoology, 20, 369–389.
Rodrigues, A. S. L., Pilgrim, J. D., Lamoreux, J. F., Hoffmann, M., & Brooks, T. M. (2006). The value of the IUCN Red List for conservation. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 21, 71–76.
Rudolph, E. H. (2010). Sobre la distribución geográfica de las especies chilenas de Parastacidae (Crustacea: Decapoda: Astacidea). Boletín de Biodiversidad de Chile, 3, 32–46.
Rudolph, E. H. (2013). Freshwater Malacostracans in Chilean Inland Waters: A checklist of the Chilean parastacidae (Decapoda, Astacidea). Crustaceana, 86, 1468–1510.
Rudolph, E., & Almerão, M. (2015). The Native South American Crayfish (Decapoda: Parastacidae). In T. Kawai, Z. Faulkes, & G. Scholtz (Eds.), Freshwater crayfish: A global overview (pp. 464–484). Florida: CRC-Press.
Rudolph, E. H., & Crandall, K. A. (2007). A new species of burrowing crayfish Virilastacus retamali (Decapoda: Parastacidae) from the southern Chilean peatland. Journal of Crustacean Biology, 27, 502–512.
Rudolph, E. H., & Crandall, K. A. (2012). A new species of burrowing crayfish, Virilastacus jarai (Crustacea, Decapoda, Parastacidae) from central-southern Chile. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 125, 258–275.
Santucci, F., Iaconelli, M., Andreani, P., Cianchi, R., Nascetti, G., & Bullini, L. (1997). Allozyme diversity of European freshwater crayfish of the genus Austropotamobius. Bulletin Français de la Pêche et de la Pisciculture, 347, 663–676.
Scholtz, G. (2002). Phylogeny and evolution. In D. M. Holdich (Ed.), Biology of freshwater crayfish (pp. 30–52). Oxford: Blackwell Science.
Scholtz, G., & Kawai, T. (2002). Aspects of embryonic and post embryonic development of the Japanese freshwater crayfish Cambaroides japonicus (Crustacea, Decapoda) including a hypothesis on the evolution of maternal care in the Astacida. Acta Zoologica (Stockholm), 83, 203–212.
Scholtz, G., Braband, A., Tolley, L., Reimann, A., Mittmann, B., Lukhaup, C., et al. (2003). Parthenogenesis in an outsider crayfish. Nature, 421, 806–806.
SEMARNAT, (2010). Norma oficial mexicana NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010, Protección ambiental - Especies nativas de México de flora y fauna silvestres - Categorías de riesgo y especificaciones para su inclusión, exclusión o cambio - Lista de especies en riesgo. Dirario Oficial, jueves 30 de diciembre de 2010.
Silva, H. L. M., & Bueno, S. L. S. (2005). Population size estimation of the exotic crayfish Procambarus clarkii (Girard) (Crustacea, Decapoda, Cambaridae) in the Alfredo Volpi City Park, São Paulo, Brazil. Revista Brasileira de Zoologia, 22, 93–98.
Simić, V., Petrović, A., Rajković, M., & Paunović, M. (2008). Crayfish of Serbia and Montenegro—the population status and the level of endangerment. Crustaceana, 81, 1153–1176.
Singleton, J. (1987). Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants: Proposed endangered status for the Shasta crayfish. Federal Register, 52, 26036–26040.
Sonntag, M. M. (2006). Taxonomic standing of the three subspecies of Pacifastacus leniusculus, and their phylogeographic patterns in the Klamath Basin area. (MS Thesis), Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
YaI, Starobogatov. (1995). published in January 1996)) Taxonomy and geographical distribution of crayfishes of Asia and east Europe (Crustacea Decapoda Astacoidei. Arthropoda Selecta, 4, 3–25.
Stebbing, T. R. R. (1893). A history of Crustacean, recent Malacostraca (The International Science Series). New York: D. Appleton.
Stloukal, E. (2009). Recent distribution of non-indigenuous crayfish species in Slovakia. Folia faunistica Slovaca, 14, 119–122.
Stoynov, E., Parvanov, D., & Grozdanov, A. (2013). Distribution of crayfish and crabs in the upper reaches of the Kamchiya River, Bulgaria. Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science, 19, 250–254.
Taylor, C. A., Schuster, G. A., Cooper, J. E., Distefano, R. J., Eversole, A. G., Hamr, P., et al. (2007). A reassessment of the conservation status of crayfishes of the United States and Canada after 10 + years of increased awareness. Fisheries, 38, 372–389.
Thoma, R. (2015). The crayfish fauna of Canada and the United States in North America. In T. Kawai, Z. Faulkes, & G. Scholtz (Eds.), Freshwater crayfish: Global overview (pp. 369–403). Florida: CRC-Press.
Threatened Species Section. (2006). Giant Freshwater Lobster Astacopsis gouldiRecovery Plan 2006–2010. Hobart, Tasmania, Australia: Department of Primary Industries and Water.
Toon, A., Pérez‐Losada, M., Schweitzer, C. E., Feldmann, R. M., Carlson, M., & Crandall, K. A. (2010). Gondwanan radiation of the Southern Hemisphere crayfishes (Decapoda: Parastacidae): Evidence from fossils and molecules. Journal of Biogeography 37(12):2275–2290. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2010.02374.x http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/jb1
Torres, E., & Álvarez, F. (2012). Genetic variation in native and introduced populations of the red swamp crayfish Procambarus clarkii (Girard, 1852) (Crustacea, Decapoda, Cambaridae) in Mexico and Costa Rica. Aquatic Invertebrate, 7, 235–241.
Tricarico, E., Vilizzi, L., Gherardi, F., & Copp, G. H. (2010). Calibration of FI-ISK, an invasiveness screening tool for nonnative freshwater invertebrates. Risk Analysis, 30, 285–292.
Trichkova, T., Botev, I., Hubenov, Z., Kenderov, L., Todorov, M., Kozuharov, D., et al. (2013). Freshwater crayfish (Decapoda: Astacidae) distribution and conservation in Bulgaria. Freshwater Crayfish, 19, 243–248.
Trožic´-Borovac, S. (2011). Freshwater crayfish in Bosnia and Herzegovina: The first report on their distribution. Knowledge and Management of Aquatic Ecosystems, 401, 26.
Vogt, G., Tolley, L., & Scholtz, G. (2004). Life stages and reproductive components of the Marmorkrebs (marbled crayfish), the first parthenogenetic decapod crustacean. Journal of Morphology, 261, 286–311.
Vogt, G. (2016). Direct development and posthatching brood care as key features of the evolution of freshwater Decapoda and challenges for conservation. In T. Kawai & N. Cumberlidge (Eds.), A Global Overview of the Conservation of Decapod Crustaceans. Switzerland: Springer.
Wardell-Johnson, G., & Horwitz, P. (1996). Conserving biodiversity and the recognition of heterogeneity in ancient landscapes: A case study from South-Western Australia. Forest Ecology and Management, 85, 219–238.
Weinländer, M., & Füreder, L. (2009). The continuing spread of Pacifastacus leniusculusin Carinthia (Austria). Knowledge and Management of Aquatic Ecosystems, 394–395, 17.
Wells, S. M., Pyle, R. M., & Collins, N. M. (1983). The IUCN Invertebrate Red Data Book. Gland, Switzerland: The IUCN.
Whitmore, N., Huryn, A. D., Arbuckle, C. J., Jansma, F. (2000). Ecology and distribution of the freshwater crayfish Paranephrops zealandicusin Otago. Implications for conservation. Department of Conservation, Science for Conservation 148, Wellington.
Acknowledgments
The senior author (TK) expresses sincere thanks to Dr. Evgeny Barabanshchikov of the Pacific Research Fisheries Center for kindly providing information on the Chinese names of Asian crayfishes, and to Professor Hyun Sook Ko of Silla University, Korea, and Professor Gi-Sik Min of Inha University, Korea, who shared information on crayfish conservation in Korea.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer International Publishing AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Kawai, T., Crandall, K.A. (2016). Global Diversity and Conservation of Freshwater Crayfish (Crustacea: Decapoda: Astacoidea). In: Kawai, T., Cumberlidge, N. (eds) A Global Overview of the Conservation of Freshwater Decapod Crustaceans. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-42527-6_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-42527-6_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-42525-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-42527-6
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)