Abstract
Questions of migration control have long been of central concern to wealthy Western states that attract large numbers of new immigrants. While border control measures aimed at deciding who is allowed to enter state territory and who is prevented from doing so are generally accepted as a legitimate sovereign prerogative, the removal of resident non-citizens tends to be far more controversial. In liberal democracies, return enforcement has therefore traditionally been considered a measure of last resort, rather than a normal policy option. More recently, however, there has been a restrictive turn in debates about migrant return across Europe. The chapter first introduces the notion of liberal constraints and calls into question established accounts that remain limited to normative and institutional understandings of the term. Instead, it points to the possible reframing of normative constraints as practical obstacles, which can in turn be overcome through technical policy innovations. Then it provides an empirical account of the strategies that the EU, the International Organization for Migration and the UK have pursued to overcome or circumvent obstacles to migrant return implementation, and highlights instances of technocratization and institutionalization as two key mechanisms in this process. In conclusion, it argues that enhanced return capacities entail a shift from spatial to temporal migration control that requires more critical attention.
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Notes
- 1.
Reliable data in Germany reach back to 1990, in the UK to 1992. In 1990, Germany rejected 116,628 asylum applications and returned 21,122 individuals either through force or through so-called assisted voluntary return schemes. In 2012, Germany issued 30,700 negative asylum decisions and returned 15,197 individuals. In 1992, the UK rejected 18,465 asylum applications and returned 6184 individuals. In 2012, the UK rejected 10,853 asylum applications and returned 24,566 individuals. Statistical data on state-induced migrant return from 1990 to 2012 (Germany) and 1992 to 2012 (UK) have been obtained from the UK Border Agency, the German Federal Police, IOM Germany and IOM UK and are on file with the author.
- 2.
Cf. Giuffre (2011) for a detailed account of how EU immigration and asylum policy has become progressively consolidated through the treaties of Maastricht, Amsterdam and Lisbon.
- 3.
The Treaty of Maastricht, and subsequently the Treaty of Amsterdam, revised the Treaty of European Community (TEC).
- 4.
Prior to 1999, the EU had included readmission clauses in other treaties with third countries. These clauses, however, were less detailed than the dedicated readmission agreements initiated after the coming into force of the Amsterdam Treaty (Coleman 2009: 1).
- 5.
As of June 2011, the EU had concluded readmission agreements with 13 third countries, and received a mandate to conduct negotiations with a further six (http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/pdf/eu_readmission_agreements_en.pdf) (last accessed 08/12/12).
- 6.
Coleman (2009) provides a comprehensive account of the history and the contents of EU readmission agreements.
- 7.
Bundesrat (2011), Mitteilung der Kommission an das Europäische Parlament und den Rat: Evaluierung der EU-Rückübernahmeabkommen, Drucksache 112/1/11: 2.
- 8.
However, one of the few existing in-depth case studies of the operation of an EU readmission agreement comes to the conclusion that “the predominant focus of the EU return policy on the effectiveness and efficiency of returns has left little room for safeguarding the human rights of the returnees” (Dedja 2012: 95).
- 9.
For an overview of EU-level developments pertaining to migration more broadly, cf. Menz (2009: 54–55).
- 10.
This had been called for as early as the 2001 European Council meeting in Laeken (European Council 2001: 11).
- 11.
For more recent information, cf. also http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/international-affairs/global-approach-to-migration/specific-tools/index_en.htm (last accessed 30 July 2013).
- 12.
Cf. http://www.iom.int/cms/en/sites/iom/home/about-iom-1/history.html (last accessed 19 October 2012).
- 13.
This analysis is based on overviews of individual countries’ migration-related institutions provided by the European Migration Network (EMN). According to this source, the following countries operate forced and assisted voluntary returns under the same institutional umbrella, e.g., their respective Interior Ministry: Austria, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Slovakia, Slovenia, and the UK.
- 14.
Cf. House of Commons Debate, 21 June 1999, vol 333 c265W.
- 15.
Cf. House of Commons Debate, 2 February 2000, vol 343 c600W.
- 16.
Cf. House of Commons Debate, 18 May 2000, vol 350 cc216-8W.
- 17.
Cf. House of Commons Debate, 20 June 2000, vol 352 cc146-7W.
- 18.
Lord Filkin (Labour), House of Lords Debate, 24 September 2002, vol 638 c214WA.
- 19.
Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for the Home office (Bethany Hughes), House of Commons Debate, 3 December 2002 vol 395 c713W.
- 20.
Cf. House of Commons Debate, 1 April 2003, vol 402 c54WS.
- 21.
Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for the Home office (Bethany Hughes), House of Commons Debate, 15 April 2003, vol 404 cc65-6W.
- 22.
Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for the Home office (Bethany Hughes), House of Commons Debate, 10 June 2003, vol 406 cc 808W.
- 23.
Cf. House of Commons Debate, 15 June 2004, vol 422 cc855-7W.
- 24.
Cf. http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/sitecontent/documents/policyandlaw/enforcement/oemsectione/chapter451?view=Binary (last accessed 03 August 2013).
- 25.
Cf. http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/sitecontent/newsarticles/2011/march/03new-family-returns-process (last accessed 03 August 2013).
- 26.
Cf. House of Commons Debate, 23 January 2002, vol 378 cc942-3W.
- 27.
Cf. House of Commons Debate, 7 January 2003, vol 397 c139W.
- 28.
Minister of State for the Home Office (Baroness Scotland of Asthal), House of Lords Debate, 1 March 2005, vol 670 cc13-4WA.
- 29.
Cf. http://www.theguardian.com/uk/2006/aug/18/immigration.immigrationandpublicservices1 (last accessed 10 February 2013).
- 30.
House of Commons Written Answers 31 October 2006: Column 403W.
- 31.
Cf. http://www.theguardian.com/uk/2006/aug/18/immigration.immigrationandpublicservices1 and http://www.irr.org.uk/news/deportation-targets-trump-childrens-rights/ (last accessed 10 February 2013).
- 32.
Cf. http://www.migrationsverket.se/info/4597_en.html (last accessed 23 February 2013).
- 33.
House of Commons Written Answers, 13 February 2013, Column 756W.
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Koch, A. (2016). Overcoming Liberal Constraints in the Field of Migrant Return: Re-establishing Political Control over Borders at the Cost of Fundamental Rights?. In: Bossong, R., Carrapico, H. (eds) EU Borders and Shifting Internal Security. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-17560-7_11
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