Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Post-traumatic Stress in Parents of Children with Leukemia: Methodological and Clinical Considerations

  • Living reference work entry
  • First Online:
Comprehensive Guide to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

  • 355 Accesses

Abstract

The family system is a particularly vital component of the ecosystem encompassing children with chronic illnesses. When a child is diagnosed with cancer, the whole family system and often the broader social context are affected, and the balance that existed previously is disrupted. Given the impact of parental presence on a child’s emotional functioning, the parent/caregiver variable is a critical factor when a child is facing a life-threatening illness and the treatment cycles it entail. Posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS), defined as intrusive memories about the child’s diagnosis or other salient moments during treatment cycles, intense physiological arousal to reminders of the cancer, and avoiding thoughts about cancer and its treatment, are closely linked to the cancer experience and are common experiences in parents of children with cancer both during active treatment cycles and for many years to come.

Methodological aspects, such as theoretical models and instruments to predict and assess posttraumatic stress symptomatology, will be outlined, and intervention strategies that may effectively help parents at high risk of developing and of continuing to suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) will be examined with particular attention.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Abbreviations

ASS:

Acute stress symptoms

EFI-C:

Ecocultural Family Interview-Cancer

PTSD:

Post-traumatic stress disorder

PTSS:

Posttraumatic stress symptoms

QoL:

Quality of life

References

  • Alderfer MA, Cnaan A, Annunziato RA, et al. Patterns of posttraumatic stress symptoms in parents of childhood cancer survivors. J Fam Psychol. 2005;19:430–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Atkin K, Ahmad WI. Family care-giving and chronic illness: how parents cope with a child with a sickle cell disorder or thalassaemia. Health Soc Care Community. 2000;8:57–69.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Axia G, Scrimin S, Tremolada M. Basi teoriche per la psico-oncologia pediatrica. In: Axia G, editors. Elementi di Psico-oncologia Pediatrica Roma: Carrocci; 2004. p. 21–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Axia G, Tremolada M, Pillon M, et al. Post-traumatic stress symptoms during treatment in mothers of children with leukemia. J Clin Oncol. 2006;24:2216.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barrera M, D’Agostino NM, Gibson J, et al. Predictors and mediators of psychological adjustment in mothers of children newly diagnosed with cancer. Psychooncology. 2004;13:630–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Best M, Streisand R, Catania L, et al. Parental distress during pediatric leukemia and posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) after treatment ends. J Pediatr Psychol. 2001;26:299–307.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bronfenbrenner U, editor. The ecology of human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown RT, Kaslow NJ, Hazzard AP, et al. Psychiatric and family functioning in children with leukemia and their parents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1992;3:495–502.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown RT, Kaslow NJ, Madan-Swain A, Doepke KJ, Sexson SB, Hill LJ. Parental psychopathology and children’s adjustment to leukaemia, Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 1993;32:554–561.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown RT, Madan-Swain A, Lambert R. Posttraumatic stress symptoms in adolescent survivors of childhood cancer and their mothers. J Trauma Stress. 2003;16:309–18.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bruce M. A systematic and conceptual review of posttraumatic stress in childhood cancer survivors and their parents. Clin Psychol Rev. 2006;26:233–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cayse LN. Fathers of children with cancer: a descriptive study of their stressors and coping strategies. J Pediatr Oncol Nurs. 1994;11:102–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chesler M, Barbarin O. Childhood cancer and the family: meeting the challenge of stress and support. 1987. New York: Brunner/Mazel.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chesler MA, Parry C. Gender roles and/or styles in crisis: an integrative analysis of the experiences of fathers of children with cancer. Qual Health Res. 2001;11:363–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dockerty JD, Williams S, McGee R, Skegg D. Impact of childhood cancer on the mental health of parents. Med Pediatr Oncol. 2000;35:475–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eapen V, Revesz T. Psychosocial correlates of paediatric cancer in the United Arab Emirates. Support Care Cancer. 2003;11:185–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ehlers A, Clark DM. A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behav Res Ther. 2000;38:319–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eiser C. Making sense of chronic disease. The eleventh Jack Tizard Memorial Lecture. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1994;35:1373–89.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eiser C, Havermans T. Mothers’ and fathers’ coping with chronic childhood disease. Psychol Health. 1992;7:249–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eiser C, Havermans T, Eiser JR. Parents’ attributions about childhood cancer: implications for relationships with medical staff. Child Care Health Dev. 1995;21:31–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frank NC, Brown RT, Blount RL, Bunke V. Predictors of affective responses of mothers and fathers of children with cancer. Psychooncology. 2001;10:293–304.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frederick CJ. Selected foci in the spectrum of posttraumatic stress disorders. In: Laube J, Murphy SA, editors. Perspectives on disaster recovery. Norwalk: Appleton-Century-Crofts; 1985. p. 110–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibson CH. The process of empowerment in mothers of chronically ill children. J Adv Nurs. 1995;21:1201–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goldbeck L. Parental coping with the diagnosis of childhood cancer: gender effects, dissimilarity within couples, and quality of life. Psychooncology. 2001;10:325–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goldenberg Libov B, Nevid JS, Pelcovitz D, et al. Posttraumatic stress symptomatology in mothers of pediatric cancer survivors. Psychol Health. 2002;17:501–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greening L, Stoppelbein L. Brief report: pediatric cancer, parental coping style, and risk for depressive, posttraumatic stress, and anxiety symptoms. J Pediatr Psychol. 2007;32:1272–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harkness S, Super CM. The developmental niche: a theoretical framework for analyzing the household production of health. Soc Sci Med. 1992;38:217–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hodgkinson R, Lester H. Stresses and coping strategies of mothers living with a child with cystic fibrosis: implications for nursing professionals. J Adv Nurs. 2002;39:377–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoekstra-Weebers JE, Jaspers JP, Kamps WA, Klip EC. Gender differences in psychological adaptation and coping in parents of pediatric cancer patients. Psychooncology. 1998;7:26–36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoekstra-Weebers JE, Jaspers JP, Kamps WA, Klip EC. Factors contributing to the psychological adjustment of parents of paediatric cancer patients. In: Baider L, Cooper CL, Kaplan De-Nour A, editors. Cancer and the family. 2nd ed. New York: Wiley; 2000. p. 257–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones JB, Neil-Urban S. Father to father: focus groups of fathers of children with cancer. Soc Work Health Care. 2003;37:41–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jurbergs N, Long A, Ticona L, et al. Symptoms of posttraumatic stress in parents of children with cancer: are they elevated relative to parents of healthy children? J Pediatr Psychol. 2009;34:4–13.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kangas M, Henry JL, Bryant RA. Posttraumatic stress disorder following cancer. A conceptual and empirical review. Clin Psychol Rev. 2002;22:499–524.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Katz S. Gender differences in adapting to a child’s chronic illness: a causal model. J Pediatr Nurs. 2002;17:257–69.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kazak AE, Stuber ML, Barakat LP, et al. Predicting posttraumatic stress symptoms in mothers and fathers of survivors of childhood cancers. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1998;37:823–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kazak AE, Cant MC, Jemsen MM, et al. Identifying psychological risk indicative of subsequent resource use in families of newly diagnosed pediatric oncology patients. J Clin Oncol. 2003a;21:3220–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kazak AE, Rourke MT, Crump TA. Families and other systems in pediatric psychology. In: Roberts MC, editor. Handbook of pediatric psychology. New York: The Guilford Press; 2003b. p. 159–75.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kazak AE, Boeving CA, Alderfer MA, et al. Posttraumatic stress symptoms during treatment in parents of children with cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2005;23:7405–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • LaMontagne LL, Wells N, Hepworth JT, et al. Parent coping and child distress behaviours during invasive procedures for childhood cancer. J Pediatr Oncol Nurs. 1999;16:3–12.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Landolt MA, Vollrath M, Ribi K, et al. Incidence and associations of parental and child posttraumatic stress symptoms in pediatric patients. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2003;44:1199–207.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Magal-Vardi O, Laor N, Toren A, Strass L, Wolmer L, Bielorai B, Rechavi G, Toren P. Psychiatric morbidity and quality of life in children with malignancies and their parents.The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 2004; 192:872–875.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manne SL, Du Hamel K, Gallelli K, et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder among mothers of pediatric cancer survivors: diagnosis, comorbidity, and utility of the PTSD Checklist as a screening instrument. J Pediatr Psychol. 1998;23:357–66.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Manne S, Duhamel K, Redd WH. Association of psychological vulnerability factors to post-traumatic stress symptomatology in mothers of paediatric cancer survivors. Psychooncology. 2000;9:372–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCaffrey CN. Major stressors and their effects on the well-being of children with cancer. J Pediatr Nurs. 2006;21:59–66.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCubbin M, Ballino K, Possin P, et al. Family resiliency in childhood cancer. Fam Relat. 2002;51:103–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGrath P. Findings on the impact of treatment for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia on family relationships. Child Fam Soc Work. 2001;6:229–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Norberg AL, Lindblad F, Boman KK. Parental traumatic stress during and after paediatric cancer treatment. Acta Oncol. 2005;4:382–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Norberg AL, Pöder U, von Essen L. Early avoidance of disease- and treatment-related distress predicts post-traumatic stress in parents of children with cancer. Eur J Oncol Nurs. 2011;15:80–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patiño-Fernández AM, Pai AL, Alderfer M, et al. Acute stress in parents of children newly diagnosed with cancer. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2008;50:289–92.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Patistea A. Description and adequacy of parental coping behaviours in childhood leukaemia. Int J Nurs Stud. 2005;42:283–96.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Phipps S, Long A, Hudson M, et al. Symptoms of post-traumatic stress in children with cancer and their parents: effects of informant and time from diagnosis. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2005;45:952–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Phipps S, Larson S, Long A, et al. Adaptive style and symptoms of posttraumatic stress in children with cancer and their parents. J Pediatr Psychol. 2006;31:298–306.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pöder U, Ljungman G, von Essen L. Posttraumatic stress disorder among parents of children on cancer treatment: a longitudinal study. Psychooncology. 2008;17:430–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ries LA, Eisner MP, Kosary CL, et al. editors. SEER cancer statistics review, 1975–2002. Bethesda: National Cancer Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rocha-García A, Alvarez Del Río A, Hérnandez-Peña P, et al. The emotional response of families to children with leukemia at the lower socio-economic level in central Mexico: a preliminary report. Psychooncology. 2003;12:78–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro J, Perez M, Warden MJ. The importance of family functioning to caregiver adaptation in mothers of child cancer patients: testing a social ecological model. J Pediatr Oncol Nurs. 1998;15:47–54.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sloper P. Predictors of distress in parents of children with cancer: a prospective study. J Pediatr Psychol. 2000;25:79–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Swallow VM, Jacoby A. Mothers’ evolving relationships with doctors and nurses during the chronic childhood illness trajectory. J Adv Nurs. 2001;36:755–64.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tremolada M, Bonichini S, Altoè G, et al. Parental perceptions of health-related quality of life in children with leukemia in the second week after the diagnosis: a quantitative model. Support Care Cancer. 2011a;19:591–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tremolada M, Bonichini S, Pillon M, et al. Eliciting adaptive emotions in conversations with parents of leukemic children receiving therapy. J Psychosoc Oncol. 2011b;29:327–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tremolada M, Bonichini S, Aloisio D, et al. Post-traumatic stress symptoms among mothers of children with leukemia undergoing treatment: a longitudinal study. Psychooncology. 2012. doi:10.1002/pon.3132.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tremolada M, Bonichini S, Schiavo S, Pillon M. Post-traumatic stress symptoms in mothers of children with leukaemia undergoing the first 12 months of therapy: predictive models. Psychol Health. 2012b. doi:10.1080/08870446.2012.690414.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tremolada M, Bonichini S, Weisner TS, et al. Parental narratives of health-related quality of life in children with leukaemia in the second week after diagnosis: the ecocultural family interview-cancer. J Pediatr Oncol. 2013;1:119–28.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Development and Social Psychology, University of Padua, Via Venezia 8, 35131, Padova, Italy

    Marta Tremolada & Sabrina Bonichini

  2. Haematology-Oncology Division, Department of Woman and Child Health, University Hospital of Padova, Via Venezia 8, 35131, Padova, Italy

    Giuseppe Basso & Marta Pillon

Authors
  1. Marta Tremolada
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Sabrina Bonichini
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Giuseppe Basso
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Marta Pillon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Marta Tremolada .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Buckinghamshire New University, Uxbridge, Middlesex, United Kingdom

    Colin R. Martin

  2. Kings College, London, United Kingdom

    Victor R. Preedy

  3. University of Westminster, London, United Kingdom

    Vinood B. Patel

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this entry

Cite this entry

Tremolada, M., Bonichini, S., Basso, G., Pillon, M. (2015). Post-traumatic Stress in Parents of Children with Leukemia: Methodological and Clinical Considerations. In: Martin, C., Preedy, V., Patel, V. (eds) Comprehensive Guide to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-08613-2_63-1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-08613-2_63-1

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-08613-2

  • eBook Packages: Springer Reference Behavioral Science and PsychologyReference Module Humanities and Social SciencesReference Module Business, Economics and Social Sciences

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation