Keywords

1 Introduction

Fluvial landforms are primarily shaped by river systems (Vandenberghe, 2002; Corenblit et al., 2007). Previous studies have concentrated on geometric characteristics and practices, including quantitative investigation of the drainage basin’s texture, shape, pattern, relief, and topography (Schumm, 1986; Burbank et al., 2000; Huggett & Cheesman, 2002; Rai, 2017).

The drainage pattern reflects the surface expression of underlying lithology and typical physiographic features (Pophare et al., 2014). Any hydrological investigation, including groundwater efficiency estimation and management, requires its morphometric analysis of the river basin (Waikar, 2014; Mustafa, 2016).

The morphometric analysis, with the support of the digital elevation model (DEM) and remote sensing data, ensures accurate information on the stream network. It also helps to understand the geomorphological and geology of the basin (Kumar et al., 2011; Rai, 2017). The morphometric variables such as slope, area, altitude, volume, profile, and texture of landforms include important study parameters (Rai et al., 2014; Singh et al., 2018a, b; Kanhaiya et al., 2019a, b, c; Prakash et al., 2019; Singh et al., 2020).

The morphometric investigation estimates the channel’s relief, aerial, linear, and gradient (Singh et al., 2018a, b). Numerous researchers have utilized GIS and remote sensing techniques to investigate the morphometric analysis of river basins in recent and previous years (Horton, 1945; Strahler, 1957; Babar & Kaplay, 1998; Kaplay et al., 2004; Babar, 2001, 2002, 2005; Sreedevi et al., 2009; Singh et al., 2013; Jadhav & Babar, 2014; Singh & Kanhaiya 2015; Rai, 2017; Prakash et al., 2019; Solangi et al., 2019a, b, Singh et al., 2021).

The present study focuses on the characterization of the Ukhma river basin using GIS and remote sensing techniques (Fig.1a–c). The morphometric parameters, in conjunction with morphotectonics, have undergone comprehensive analysis and discussion to delineate the river basin’s structure. This exploration aims to ascertain its effectiveness in water harvesting and groundwater management.

Fig. 1
A study area map of an India map. A magnified view of the elevation map of the central region of India with the locations of Jhasi, Ganga plane, Allahabad, Manikpur, Satna, and Rewa. The Ukhma river basin in Manikpur is magnified with the location of the Kargohi and Tons River.

The map shows the location of the Ukhma river basin (Singh et al., 2022)

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2 Geology of the Area

The Ukhma river is the tributary of the Tons River. It flows through districts such as Rewa and Satna of Madhya Pradesh, Central India (Fig. 1a–c). A typical seasonal river, the river Ukhma, joins the Tons River near Deokhar Village in the Satna district and originates from Ledari Village. The area of the Ukhma basin lies on Vindhyan rocks, covering an area of about 745 km2.

The Ukhma basin covers one of the most dominant stratigraphic horizons in Central India, viz., Vindhyan Supergroup. Two distinct groups within the Vindhyan Supergroup are distinguished by distinct regional unconformity: Kaimur, Rewa, and Bhander Groups make up the Upper Vindhyan and the Lower Vindhyan (Semri Group) (Auden, 1933; Chakraborty & Chaudhuri, 1990; Chakraborty et al., 1998; Chakraborty, 2006; Shukla et al., 2014; Verma & Shukla, 2020). The maximum part of the study area is covered by the Rewa Group of rock, which consists of sandstone and shale, followed by the Kaimur Group.

The Aravalli-Delhi orogenic belt confines the Vindhyan Basin to the west and the Satpura orogenic belt to the south. According to Roy and Bandyopadhyay (1990), Verma (1991), and Verma (1996), the Mahakoshal Supergroup and the Bijawar Supergroup are low-grade metamorphic rocks to the east. The Vindhyan Basin’s southern tectonic boundary is marked by the Son-Narmada lineament. It is accepted that this structural design appeared during the Archean and has stayed dynamic all through its geologic past (Naqvi & Rogers, 1987; Kaila, 1986; Kaila et al., 1989) (Fig. 1b). A southerly dipping reverse fault separates the Vindhyans from the Satpura mobile belt further south of this lineament (Tewari et al., 2001).

This fault appears to have generated deformations in the sedimentary rocks occurring immediately to its North in the Son Valley. However, these deformations are untraceable to the west, possibly due to the cover of younger rocks (Rogers, 1986). It is believed that the mountain-building activity in the Satpura was underway during the early phases of deposition in the Vindhyan Basin. At a later stage, the folded rocks of the Satpura were transported onto the Vindhyan (Naqvi & Rogers, 1987). The Great Boundary Fault (GBF) at the western margin in Rajasthan roughly separates the Vindhyan from the Archean/Paleoproterozoic Aravalli/Delhi Foldbelt (Fig. 1b). Although it was earlier believed that the GBF was purely a pre-Vindhyan fault that bounded the Vindhyan from the pre-Vindhyan rocks, there is sufficient field evidence that indicates that it had abundant reactivations after the deposition of the Vindhyan (Banerjee & Singh, 1981; Kaila, 1986; Kaila et al., 1989; Srivastava & Sahay, 2003).

3 Methodology

The Ukhma Basin boundary has been delineated using Survey of India (SOI) topographical maps No. 63C/16, 63D/13, 63G/8,4, and 63H/1,5 at a 1:50,000 scale. The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection WGS 1984, Zone 44 North, serves as a georeference for the topographical maps. Arc GIS 10 software uses SOI topographical maps to extract the streams of the Ukhma Basin. The entire high-resolution advanced topographic database of the Earth’s surface was created by the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM), which collected elevation (height) data from all over the world. Geomorphological parameters like slope aspect and gradient were identified using the SRTM DEM. Deformation (structural) features like joints, fractures, and drainage offset (linear features or lineaments) were determined using Sentinal-2 images. The flowchart (Fig. 2) depicts the in-depth methodology.

Fig. 2
A flowchart presents the steps involved in the in-depth method. The process starts with the data source, followed by the S O I toposheet, georeferencing, preparation of the drainage map, S R T M D E M, sinks, depression less D E M, and morphometric analysis.

The flowchart depicts the in-depth methodology

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The data from the SRTM DEM (Fig. 3) is used to highlight important geomorphological parameters like slope aspect and gradient (Fig. 4). This study used Strahler’s (1964) stream order method. A mathematical approach and formula for calculating the basin morphometric parameters are presented in Table 1.

Fig. 3
A 3 D elevation map of the Ukhma river basin at 10 kilometers. The boundaries of the Tons River and the Ukhma River are indicated by the arrows. The scale measures 10 kilometers. The surface of the map ranges from 86 to 474 meters, represented by different color gradients.

The digital elevation model of the Ukhma river basin drove from SRTM data. The elevation varies between 86 to 474 m in the study area

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Fig. 4
4 distribution maps of the Ukhma river basin from S R T M D E M analysis. The legends for elevation, aspect, slope, and drainage density are highlighted in the map, which are represented by different color codes. The scale ranges from 0 to 10 kilometers.

(a) Relief map, (b) aspect map, (c) slope map, and (d) drainage density map of the Ukhma river basin

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Table 1 Different parameters implemented for morphometric analysis
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4 Results

The morphometric analysis involves the measurement and analytical study of the river basin. Morphometric studies include basin area, altitude, volume, slope, profiles of the River, and drainage basin characteristics of the catchment zone concerned (Clark, 1966). Ukhma river basin is a six-order basin with fifth-order 10 subbasins, viz., Jiro, Gularha, Chhatan, Baridari, Bedhak, Dharkundi, Kakarhai, Terhwa, Jarera, and Karibarah subbasin are, shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5
A drainage density map of the Ukhma river basin in central India. The legend stream orders and subwater sheds are highlighted in the map. 6 density polar graphs are provided above the map in different directions. A scale ranges from 0 to 24 kilometers.

The drainage of the Ukhma river with 10 subbasins (Jirond, Gularha, Chhatan, Baridari, Bedhak, Dharkundi, Kakarhai, Terhwa, Jarera, and Karibarah)

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The characteristics of linear, areal, and relief perspectives have been examined and illustrated in the accompanying results, along with their respective features.

4.1 Drainage Pattern and Morphometric Aspects

The drainage orientations (direction) of the Ukhma River basin (UW) show polymodal distribution (NE–SW, NW–SE, N–S, and E–W) (Fig. 5). The dendritic drainage pattern is primarily found in the lower part of the Ukhma river basin. The dendritic patterns resemble a zone of similar lithologies. The elevation, aspect, slope, and drainage density map also have been prepared and shown in Fig. 4a–d. The elevation, aspect, slope, and drainage density map are beneficial to determine the distribution of vegetation, biodiversity in the basin area, morpho-conservation practices, etc. (Sreedevi et al., 2004).

4.2 Linear Characteristics of the Basin

From head to mouth, stream network reveals the behavior of a stream and its tributaries and reflects the structural and lithological controls on the drainage basin. A drainage basin’s perimeter, stream order, length, bifurcation ratio, stream length ratio, and rho coefficient are all important linear properties.

The Ukhma River basin is divided into ten 5th-order stream subbasins and has a perimeter of 139.74 kilometers (Table 2). The Dharkundi subbasin has a minimum perimeter of 20.31 km, while the Kakarhai subbasin has a maximum perimeter of 50.52 km. According to Leopold (1969), stream order demonstrates a stream’s distinct position within a drainage basin. The Ukhma river basin is designated as the sixth-order stream in accordance with Strahler’s stream ordering (Strahler, 1957, 1958).

Table 2 Morphometric parameters of the Ukhma river basin and its subbasins
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For a given order, the length of the stream indicates the basin’s contributing region (Horton, 1945). The length of stream segments is inversely proportional to the order of the streams (Fig. 6). It indicates that stream length increases with stream order and decreases in first-order streams (Fig. 7). Table 2 displays the average and total lengths of each stream. Hack (1957) depicts the relationship between basin territory and stream length, stating that head-ward erosion is the predominant river for drainage system expansion and improvement. The Dharkundi subbasin has the highest stream length ratio (0.66), indicating that structures and rock types influence the development of drainage patterns.

Fig. 6
10 scatter plots of stream length versus stream order for different subbasins. The plots are distributed uniformly on either side of the line, decreasing from 2.5 to 0 except Dharkundi subbasin. Dharkundi subbasin plots are distributed on either side of the line, decreasing from 2 to negative 0.5.

The relation between stream order and stream length (a) Jirond subbasin (b) Chhatan subbasin (c) Bedhak subbasin (d) Kakarhai subbasin (e) Jarera subbasin (f) Gularha subbasin (g) Baridari subbasin (h) Dharkundi subbasin (i) Terhwa subbasin (j) Karibar

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Fig. 7
10 scatter plots of stream number versus stream order for different subbasins. The plots are distributed uniformly on either side of the line, decreasing from (1, 2.5) to (4, 0).

The relation between stream order and stream number (a) Jirond subbasin (b) Chhatan subbasin (c) Bedhak subbasin (d) Kakarhai subbasin (e) Jarera subbasin (f) Gularha subbasin (g) Baridari subbasin (h) Dharkundi subbasin (i) Terhwa subbasin (j) Karibara subbasin

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The bifurcation ratio is the proportion between the number of following higher-order streams and the number of streams of a given order (Strahler, 1964).

The bifurcation ratio ranges from 3 to 7, by which the geological structures control the drainage pattern. The typical Rb of the Ukhma Bowl is 4.75 (Table 2), which shows the undulating region with high surface runoff and moderate permeability of litho-units.

As defined by Horton (1945), the stream length ratio is the proportion of the stream’s mean length to the following lower order of the stream segments. The stream length proportion among 10 subbasins varies from 0.49 to 0.66. According to Sreedevi et al. (2004), the RL values’ variations are directly related to the topography and lithology. The high erosion activity indicates a higher stream length ratio. The stream length ratio increases from lower- to higher-order and is represented as an achievement of geomorphic development (Thomas et al., 2010; Prakash et al., 2016a, b, 2017; Singh et al., 2018a, b, 2020, 2021).

The Rho coefficient is characterized as the proportion of the stream length ratio to the bifurcation ratio. For the subbasins, the rho coefficient varies between 0.07 and 0.21. It is an essential parameter relating drainage density to the physiography maturity of a basin. It is a crucial parameter that links drainage density to a basin’s physiography maturity. The Rho coefficient is a valuable parameter for assessing the storage capacity limit of the drainage system (Horton, 1945). Higher hydrologic storage during floods and decreased erosion during high discharge explain the higher Rho coefficient values found in the Dharkundi and Bedhak subbasins.

4.3 Areal Aspects of the Basin

Geological structure, climatic conditions, lithology, and the basin’s history of denudation are all revealed by the areal aspects of a drainage basin. Basin area, drainage density, overland flow length, constant channel maintenance, form factor, circulatory ratio, and elongation ratio are all aerial aspects of a drainage basin. The Ukhma basin occupies a 745.84 km2 area in Central India. The areas of 10 subbasins are arranged and summarized in Table 2.

The ratio of total channel lengths within a basin to the basin’s area is known as drainage density (Dd). It could also indicate how close the channels’ spacing is (Strahler, 1964). Under dense vegetation and low relief, a low Dd is more likely to occur in a region with highly resistant and permeable subsoil. Mountainous relief, weak or impermeable subsurface material, and sparse vegetation all indicate a high drainage density. The Ukhma River basin has a drainage density of 2.67 per km, which indicates a moderate drainage density (Table 1). According to Rai (2017) and Thomas et al. (2010), the basin should have permeable subsoil and vegetative cover due to the moderate drainage density. Figure 4 depicts the Ukhma basin’s drainage density map. The Karibarah subbasin’s low drainage density is preferable to resistant lithology or extremely permeable subsoil beneath dense vegetation.

In contrast, the Baridari subbasin’s high drainage density is supported in locations with weak or impermeable materials and minimal vegetation cover. The distance from the crest line at which the flow concentration occurs is used to calculate the overland flow length (Lg) (Horton, 1945, Rudraiah et al., 2008). According to Horton (1945), Lg is a significant parameter that influences the hydrological and physiographical developments of the drainage basin. Lg ranges between 0.68 and 1.93 in the study area (Table 2). The Baridari and Chhatan subbasins are characterized by an early stage of basin development, whereas other subbasins, such as the Ukhma basin, are assumed to have reached a mature stage.

Drainage density and the constant of channel maintenance (C) complement one another (Schumm, 1956). The basin’s slope, permeability, climatic conditions, vegetation cover, erosional activity duration, and rock types influence the C. The C value of the Ukhma basin (UW) is 1.33 and differs from 0.25 and 0.72 for every 10 subbasins (Table 2). Subbasins with low C values are categorized as areas with few structural constraints. The stream’s old saying is that a higher value of C indicates a higher invasion rate.

The drainage basin’s shape and flow intensity are directly related to peak discharge by the form factor (Ff) (Gregory & Walling, 1973; Magesh et al., 2012). The higher Ff values of the Gularha and Chhatan subbasins (> 0.51) suggested that the peak flow was increased and lasted for a shorter time. In contrast, the Karibarah subbasin’s lower value indicates shorter periods of insufficient peak flow.

According to Miller (1958), the circularity proportion (Rc) is the proportion of the basin area to the area of a circle with the same parameter as the basin. It is influenced by the basin’s stream frequency (Fs), the land cover, the geological structures, the climate, the relief, and the steepness of the slope (Bali et al., 2012). Rc is a crucial parameter that indicates the stage of the basin (Sreedevi et al., 2004; Kumar & co., 2011). The Ukhma main basin has an Rc value of 0.47 (Table 2). The young and mature stages of basin development are represented by the Kakarhai subbasin’s low Rc value of 0.41 and the Chhatan subbasin’s high Rc value of 0.71, respectively.

The elongation ratio (Re), as defined by Schumm (1956), is the ratio of the basin’s length to the diameter of a circle with the same area as the basin. The higher elongation ratio indicates the impervious surface’s low relief. In contrast, the low value of the elongation ratio indicates similar geological materials that are strongly elongated and highly permeable (Reddy et al., 2004). The Re in the Ukhma basin ranges from 0.57 and 0.88 over a sufficient assorted atmosphere and topography with strong relief and steep slope.

4.4 Relief Aspects of the Basin

The basin relief, relief ratio, gradient ratio, and melton ruggedness number were all relief aspects of a drainage basin. According to Schumm (1956), basin relief is the difference in elevation between the basin’s maximum and minimum elevations. Basin relief provides a better understanding of the basin’s denudational description, reveals the stream’s gradient, influences the channel’s capacity for transportation, and reveals flood patterns (Sreedevi et al., 2004).

According to Schumm (1956), the relief ratio, defined as the ratio of basin relief to basin length, is widely accepted as a valid measure of the basin’s gradient aspects (Vittala & co, 2004). A relief ratio with a high value represents the hilly region. In contrast, the valley and Pedi-plain areas are characterized by a low value (Kumar et al., 2011, Magesh et al., 2012). The Chhatan subbasin has a maximum Rr value of 0.031 (Table 2), indicating higher relief and a steeper slope supported by rugged rocks.

From source to mouth and basin length, the gradient ratio is the ratio of the various elevations. A measure of channel slant, the gradient ratio (Rg), aids in determining the runoff volume (Sreedevi et al., 2004; Thomas et al., 2010; Prakash et al., 2016, 2017; Singh et al., 2018b). The Chhatan subbasin’s high Rg value indicates a steep slope and increased runoff. In contrast, the Karibarah subbasin’s low Rg value indicates less surface runoff and a greater likelihood of infiltration.

The ratio of basin relief divided by the square root of the basin’s area is the melton ruggedness number (Melton, 1965). The melton ruggedness number of the Ukhma Bowl is 0.011 (Table 2).

4.5 Lineaments Analysis

According to Nur (1982), the lineaments are the essential components of the Earth’s surface morphology and deformation. With the help of the Arc GIS-10 platform’s sentinel-2 imagers, the lineaments were identified and further supported by in-depth field investigations. One hundred ninety lineaments have been mapped. Figure 8, a rose diagram, depicts the orientations of these lineaments. There are some NE–SW trending lineaments, and the NW–SE trending lineaments are relatively high. The fact that most lineaments do not follow the Son-Narmada lineament’s regional trend suggests that secondary tectonics in and after the Son-Narmada lineament developed the basin. Figure 1b demonstrates that the faulting and fractures that occurred during the subsequent stage of basin development are distinct from the regional trend of the Son-Narmada lineaments.

Fig. 8
A study area map of the Ukhma river basin with the location of the Ukhma river and the lineament directions. The density polar graph is plotted above the map at N = 190. A scale ranges from 0 to 24 kilometers.

Figure showing different lineament directions in the Ukhma river basin

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4.6 Longitudinal Profiles

Longitudinal profiles of the river significance from the interaction between base-level change, fluvial incision, lithology, and tectonics (Brocard et al., 2003; Larue, 2008a, b). The variation in lithology of the region influences longitudinal profile development as well (Duvall et al., 2004; Stock & Montgomery, 1999; Ritter et al., 2002). The Ukhma river has a variable of curves and gradients in its longitudinal profile (Fig. 9b). These deviations from the longitudinal profile may indicate either a harmonious stream in which the upstream retreat alters the base level of the upstream basin (Bishop et al., 2005) or, in some instances, a dynamic equilibrium between tectonic movements and fluvial processes (Snow & Slingerland, 1990). These knick points connect the lithological variation and outcomes of regional tectonics in the longitudinal profile of the Ukhma river.

Fig. 9
a. A satellite image of the Ukhma River along with the location of the Tons River and lateral tilting direction. b. A multi-line graph of elevation index versus distance. 2 lines for linear S L index and profile follow a decreasing trend. 2 lines for S L index and profile follow an increasing trend.

(a) The AF value of the Ukhma river is 52.65, which is greater than 50, suggesting that the basin has been tilted in the northward direction (left side of the river) (b) longitudinal profile of the Ukhma river

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4.7 Asymmetry Factor (AF)

According to Cox et al. (2001) and Pinter (2005), AF is a crucial parameter for determining the directions of potential differential tectonism and tilting. A basin’s lateral tilt concerning the river is indicated by this factor (Cox et al., 2001; Cuong & Zuchiewicz, 2001). The asymmetry factor is calculated as AF = 100 (Ar/At), where Ar is the area of the mainstream’s right side and At is the drainage basin’s total area. If AF exceeds 50, the river has tilted to the left of the basin in relation to the river (Molin et al., 2004), and if AF is greater than 50, the river has sunk to the right of the drainage basin (Molin et al., 2004). In the current review, the AF of the Ukhma Stream is 52.65 (Fig. 9a).

5 Discussion

The linear parameters provide information about the very high fraction of first-order stream, high infiltration rate, mature stage, and gentle slope. The areal parameters provide information about the value of circularity ratio (0.373), length of overland flow (1.337), drainage density (2.675), low water storage capacity, and concentration of peak discharge in the distal part of this basin (Table 1). The relief parameter gives information about the low value of relief ratio (0.007), relief (0.312), high infiltration rate, low surface runoff, and spreading of water within the basin (Table 1). The estimations of the bifurcation ratio for the Ukhma basin represent the basin’s dismembered mountainous nature having mature geography.

The area with homogeneous lithologies and horizontal or gently dipping strata resembles the dendritic pattern. The basin’s behavior during heavy rainfall, which may result in significant runoff and floods, is predicted using the morphometric parameters (Garde, 2006; (2010) (Perucca and Angilieri). According to Table 2, the Ukhma Basin’s average Rb is 4.75, indicating a hilly area with moderate litho-unit permeability and high surface runoff. The drainage system’s storage capacity limit can be determined and evaluated using the Rho coefficient. According to Horton (1945), it is utilized as a component of the drainage level of advance in a specific basin. Higher hydrologic storage during floods and decreased erosion during high discharge explain the higher Rho coefficient values found in the Dharkundi and Bedhak subbasins. The Karibarah subbasin’s low drainage density is preferable to resistant lithology or extremely permeable subsoil beneath dense vegetation. In contrast, the Baridari subbasin’s high drainage density is supported in locations with weak or impermeable materials and minimal vegetation cover. Lg ranges between 0.68 and 1.93 in the area under study. The Baridari and Chhatan subbasins are characterized by an early stage of basin development, whereas other subbasins, such as the Ukhma basin, are assumed to have reached a mature stage. The higher Ff values (>0.51) of the Gularha and Chhatan subbasins suggested a shorter period of high peak flow. In contrast, the lower Ff value of the Karibarah subbasin suggested a more extended period of insufficient peak flow. The Son-Narmada lineament is not the most common of the lineaments (Figs. 1b and 9). Through its overall morphology and knick points, where the river gradient changes rapidly, the longitudinal profile of the Ukhma river reveals the influence of regional tectonism (Fig. 9b).

The Ukhma river has an AF value of 52.65, which is higher than 50 and indicates that the basin has been tilted to the North (left side of the river) (Fig. 9a). By identifying abnormally high SL index values, the SL index was used to identify neo-tectonic activity (Merritts & Vincent, 1989; Keller & Pinter, 1996).

6 Conclusion

  1. 1.

    The bifurcation ratio suggests that some geologies and structures control the drainage pattern of the Ukhma basin.

  2. 2.

    The very high fraction of first-order streams indicates uniform lithology and gentle slope, explaining the significant portion of precipitation flow as surface runoff. The overland flow length shows the drainage basin’s physiographical development and geomorphic maturity.

  3. 3.

    Morphometric parameters are used to predict the behavior of the basin during heavy rains that can generate significant runoff and create flooding.

  4. 4.

    The lineament study and longitudinal profile of the basin suggest that the regional tectonics somehow controls the drainage dynamics of the Ukhma Basin. The asymmetry factor of the Ukhma river indicates left-side channel shifting, i.e., in the northward direction.