• Allium caspium subsp. baissunense (Lipsky) F.O. Khass. & R.M. Fritsch

  • Synonyms: Allium baissunense Lipsky; Allium rhodanthum Vved.

  • Allium cepa L.

  • Synonyms: Allium angolense Baker; Allium aobanum Araki; Allium ascalonicum var. condensum Millán; Allium ascalonicum var. fertile Millán; Allium ascalonicum var. sterile Millán; Allium cepaeum St.-Lag.; Allium esculentum Salisb.; Allium napus Pall. ex Kunth; Allium pauciflorum Willd. ex Ledeb.; Allium salota Dostál; Ascalonicum sativum P. Renault; Cepa alba P. Renault; Cepa esculenta Gray; Cepa pallens P. Renault; Cepa rubra P. Renault; Kepa esculenta Raf.; Porrum cepa (L.) Rchb.

  • Allium giganteum Regel

  • Allium karataviense Regel

  • Synonyms: Allium cabulicum Baker; Allium karataviense var. granitovii Priszter; Allium karataviense subsp. henrikii Rukšans; Allium singulifolium Rech.f.

  • Allium oschaninii O.Fedtsch.

  • Allium pskemense B.Fedtsch.

  • Allium ramosum L.

  • Synonyms: Aglitheis tatarica (L. f.) Raf.; Allium beckerianum Regel; Allium diaphanum Janka; Allium lancipetalum Y.O. Hsu; Allium odorum L.; Allium potaninii Regel; Allium ramosum Georgi; Allium senescens Miq.; Allium tataricum L. f.; Allium umbellatum Haller f. ex Steud.; Allium weichanicum Palib.; Butomissa tatarica (L.f.) Salisb.; Moly odorum (L.) Moench

  • Allium rosenbachianum Regel

  • Allium sarawschanicum Regel

  • Synonyms: Allium pseudoseravschanicum Popov & Vved.

  • Allium sativum L.

  • Synonyms: Allium arenarium Sadler ex Rchb.; Allium controversum Schrad. ex Willd.; Allium longicuspis Regel; Allium pekinense Prokhanov; Allium sativum subsp. asiae-mediae Kazakova; Allium sativum f. sagittatum Kazakova; Allium sativum f. vulgare Kazakova; Allium scorodoprasum var. multibulbillosum Y.N. Lee; Porrum ophioscorodon (Link) Rchb.; Porrum sativum (L.) Rchb.

  • Allium stipitatum Regel

  • Synonyms: Allium hirtifolium Boiss.

  • Allium suworowii Regel

  • Allium tschimganicum B. Fedtsch.

  • Synonyms: Allium motor Kamelin & Levichev

Local Names

Allium caspium: Russian: Лук каспийский (Luk kaspiyskiy); Uzbek: Tog piyoz; Tadjik: Piyoz

Allium cepa: Russian: Лук репчатый (Luk repchatiy); Uzbek: Piyoz; Tadjik: Piyoz; English: Onion

Allium giganteum: Russian: Лук гигантский (Luk gigantskiy); Uzbek: Piyoz; Tadjik: Piozikalon

Allium karataviense: Russian: Лук каратавский (Luk karatavskiy); Uzbek: Chuchka piyoz; Tadjik: Modelak; Khurok

Allium oschaninii: Russian: Лук Ошанина (Luk Oshanina); Uzbek: Oshann piyoz; Tadjik: Piozikalon

Allium pskemense: Russian: Лук пскемский (Luk pskemskiy); Uzbek: Piskom piyozi

Allium ramosum: Russian: Лук душистый (Luk dushistiy); Uzbek: Jusai; Tadjik: Roshicha molgul; English: Fragrant-flowered Garlic

Allium rosenbachianum: Russian: Лук Розенбаха (Luk Rozenbakha); Uzbek: Tog’ pioyzi; Tadjik: Siyukh-alaf; Siaalaf

Allium sarawschanicum: Russian: Лук зеравшанский (Luk zeravshanskiy); Uzbek: Zarafshon piyozi; Tadjik: Modil

Allium sativum: Russian: Чеснок посевной (Chesnok posevnoi); Uzbek: Sarimsoq; Tadjik: Sir; English: Garlic

Allium stipitatum: Russian: Лук стебельчатый (Luk stebelchatiy); Uzbek: Anzur piyozi; Tadjik: Modari siyokhalaf

Allium suworowii: Russian: Лук Суворова (Luk Suvorova); Uzbek: Anzur piyozi; Tadjik: Anzur; Ansul

Allium tschimganicum: Russian: Лук чимганский (Luk tschimganskiy); Uzbek: Mador; Motor piyozi

Botany and Ecology

Allium caspium: Perennial; bulb globose, 2–4.5 mm in diameter; tunics papery, nearly 276 black; scape stumpy, 10–30 cm long; leaves 1–3, ranging from linear or linear-lanceolate to broadly lanceolate, 5–25 mm broad, not exceeding the scape, the cartilaginous margin scabrous or smooth; spathe one-third as long as the umbel; umbel fasciculate, often hemispherical or spherical, rather loosely many-flowered; pedicels 2–4 or more times the length of perianth segments, up to 15 cm long, ebracteolate; segments of the campanulate perianth dingy greenish-violet or rarely whitish, 5–11 mm oblong to oblong-oval, rarely lanceolate, obtuse, the inner sometimes crenate, up to half as broad again as the outer, not changing after anthesis; filaments violet or rarely white, half as broad again as perianth segments, toothless, at base connate and adnate to perianth, subequal, linear-subulate from enlarged base: ovary smooth, short-stipitate; capsule obovoid, ca. 4 mm in diameter. Sandy deserts and sands in areas of mottled outcrops. – Central Asia: Aral-Caspiy, Kyzil Kum, Kara Kum, Mtn. Turkmenistan. (Kushkinskii River), Syr Darya, Amu Darya, Pamir - Alai (SW). Endemic (Komarov 1935) (Figs. 1 and 2).

Fig. 1
A photograph of wild Allium caspium plants with blooming flowers. The leaves are long and elongated. The pedicels are double the length of the perianth segments.

Allium caspium (Amaryllidaceae), Surkhandariya region, Uzbekistan. (Photo N.Yu. Beshko)

Full size image
Fig. 2
A photograph of a flower of the Allium caspium plant. The pedicels of the flower are long, like spikes.

Allium caspium (Amaryllidaceae), Surkhandariya region, Uzbekistan. (Photo N.Yu. Beshko)

Full size image

Allium cepa: Biennial glabrous herb, usually grown as an annual from seed or bulbs, up to 100 cm tall; real stem very short, formed at the base of the plant in the form of a disk, with adventitious roots at base; bulbs formed by the thickening of leaf-bases a short distance above the true stem, solitary or in clusters, depressed globose to ovoid or oblate, up to 20 cm in diameter, variously colored. Leaves 3–8, distichously alternate, glaucous, with tubular sheath; blade D-shaped in cross section, hollow, up to 50 cm long, acute at apex. Inflorescence a spherical umbel up to 8 cm in diameter, on a long, erect, terete, hollow scape up to 100 cm long, usually inflated below the middle; umbel initially surrounded by a membranous spathe splitting into 2–4 papery bracts. Flowers bisexual, stellate; pedicel slender, up to 4 cm long; tepals 6, in 2 whorls, free, ovate to oblong, 3–5 mm long, greenish white to purple; stamens 6; ovary superior, 3-celled, style shorter than stamens at anthesis, later elongating. Fruit a globular capsule 4–6 mm in diameter, splitting loculicidally, up to 6-seeded. Seeds 6 mm × 4 mm, black. Allium cepa probably originates from Central Asia where some of its relatives still grow in the ild. The closest among them are Allium vavilovii Popov & Vved. from southern Turkmenistan and northern Iran, and Allium asarense R.M. Fritsch & Matin from Iran (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3
A photograph of Allium cepa plants in a row.

Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Full size image

Allium giganteum: Perennial; bulb ovoid, 4–6 cm thick; tunics rather numerous, grayish-brown, splitting; scape robust, 80–150 cm long, rather inconspicuously nerved; leaves lorate, glaucous, 5–10 cm broad, smooth, one-third to one-half as long as the scape; spathe half as long as the umbel, short-beaked; umbel spherical, densely many-flowered; pedicels subequal, 5 times the length of perianth, ebracteolate; segments of the stellate perianth, light violet, obscurely nerved, 5 mm long, elliptic, obtuse, not changing after anthesis; filaments about half as long again as perianth segments, at base connate and adnate to perianth, subulate from triangular base, the base of inner filaments half as broad again; ovary subsessile, scabrous; capsule subglobose, ca. 4 mm in diameter. April–May. Loose-textured slopes in the lower mountain zone. – Central Asia: Mtn. Turkmenistan, Pamir – Alai (Komarov 1935) (Figs. 4 and 5).

Fig. 4
A photograph of the cluster of tiny flowers of Allium giganteum. The cluster is like a sphere.

Allium giganteum (Amaryllidaceae), Surkhandariya region, Uzbekistan. (Photo N.Yu. Beshko)

Full size image
Fig. 5
A photograph of flower clusters of two wild Allium giganteum flower clusters at the ends of long stems.

Allium giganteum (Amaryllidaceae), Surkhandariya region, Uzbekistan. (Photo N.Yu. Beshko)

Full size image

Allium karataviense: Perennial; bulb globose, 2–6 cm thick; tunics blackish or grayish, papery; scape stumpy, 10–25 cm long, sometimes buried in the soil up to the middle, shorter than the leaves; leaves commonly 2, rarely 1 or 3, lanceolate or often oblong or subelliptic, 3–15 cm broad, smooth-margined; spathe two-thirds as long to slightly shorter than the umbel, short-acuminate; umbel spherical, densely many-flowered; pedicels equal, 3–4 times the length of perianth, ebracteolate; segments of the stellate perianth light rosy-violet, with a darker nerve, 5–7 mm long, linear, obtuse, at length recurved and twisted; filaments slightly exceeding the perianth segments; at base connate and adnate to perianth, united higher up, subulate from triangular base, the base of inner filaments half as broad again; ovary stipitate, scabrous; capsule obcordiform, ca. 8 mm in diameter. April – May. Loose calcareous screes in the lower mountain zone. – Central Asia: Pamir– Alai. (Alai Range), Tien Shan. (West Tien Shan). Endemic (Komarov 1935) (Figs. 6 and 7).

Fig. 6
A photograph of the flower and pedicel cluster of an Allium karataviense plant on rocky ground. The leaves are large on either side of the flower.

Allium karataviense (Amaryllidaceae), Surkhandariya region, Uzbekistan. (Photo N.Yu. Beshko)

Full size image
Fig. 7
A photograph of the flower clusters of wild Allium karataviense plants on the gravelly ground.

Allium karataviense (Amaryllidaceae), Surkhandariya region, Uzbekistan. (Photo N.Yu. Beshko)

Full size image

Allium oschaninii: Perennial; bulbs 1–3, attached to rhizome, ovoid, 2.5–4 cm thick; tunics reddish-brown, coriaceous, entire; scape robust, 45–100 cm long, hollow, inflated below the middle, covered at base with subdistant smooth leaf sheaths; leaves 4 or 5, cylindric, attenuate toward apex, fistulous, glaucescent, erect, 4–15-(40) mm broad, one-third the length of the scape; spathe about equaling the umbel; umbel spherical, densely many-flowered; pedicels 3–4 times as long as perianth; bracteolate; segments of the stellate 199 perianth white, with a green nerve, 4–5 mm long, equal, linear-oblong to oblong-lanceolate, obtuse; filaments one -fourth as long again as perianth, at base connate and adnate to perianth, the outer subulate, the inner at base twice as broad as the outer and slightly broader than perianth segments, subulate from a broadly ovate obtusely 2 -toothed base; style shorter than the capsule; capsule globose-trigonous, ca. 5 mm in diameter. June. Rock crevices and stony slopes. – Central Asia: Pamir Alai, Tien Shan (Mogol-tau). Endemic (Komarov 1935) (Figs. 8 and 9).

Fig. 8
A photograph of the flower clusters of Allium oschaninii plants along a footpath.

Allium oschaninii (Amaryllidaceae), Tashkent Botanical Garden, Tashkent, Uzbekistan. (Photo N.Yu. Beshko)

Full size image
Fig. 9
A photograph of a flower cluster of the Allium oschaninii plant with the flowers and the pedicel in a tight sphere.

Allium oschaninii (Amaryllidaceae), Tashkent Botanical Garden, Tashkent, Uzbekistan. (Photo N.Yu. Beshko)

Full size image

Allium pskemense: Perennial; bulbs in a cluster of several, attached to rhizome, elongate-ovoid, 4–6 cm thick; tunics reddish-brown, subcoriaceous, entire; scape robust, 40–80 cm long, hollow, obliquely inflated below the middle, covered at base with smooth leaf sheaths; leaves 3, cylindric, attenuate toward apex, fistulous, erect, 2–3 cm thick, half as long as the scape; spathe about equaling the umbel; umbel spherical, densely many-flowered; pedicels equal, 3–4 times as long as perianth, subtended by bracteoles; segments of the stellate perianth white, obscurely nerved, ca. 6 mm long, equal, 198 oblong, obtuse; filaments slightly exceeding the perianth segments, at base connate and adnate to perianth, slightly connate in a ring higher up, the outer subulate, the inner about 3 times as broad at base as the outer and much broader than the perianth segments, subulate above the 2 – toothed base; style shorter than the capsule; capsule globose -trigonous. August. Rock crevices and stony places. – Central Asia: Tien Shan. (Tashkent AlaTau, Chatkal Range). Endemic (Komarov 1935) (Figs. 10 and 11).

Fig. 10
A photograph of a single Allium pskemense plant with a flower cluster on a mossy rock.

Allium pskemense (Amaryllidaceae), Pskem valley, Tashkent region, Uzbekistan. (Photo Ulugbek Kodirov)

Full size image
Fig. 11
A photograph of a flower cluster of an Allium pskemense plant with flowers, pedicels, and bracts

Allium pskemense (Amaryllidaceae), Pskem valley, Tashkent region, Uzbekistan. (Photo Ulugbek Kodirov)

Full size image

Allium ramosum: Perennial; bulbs 1–3, rarely more, attached to a horizontal rhizome, narrowly cylindric- conical, obsolescent; tunics rufous -brown, reticulate; scape (l5)-30–50 cm long, slightly ribbed; leaves 2 or 3, narrowly linear, (l.5)-2–4 mm broad, approximate at scape base, slightly shorter than the scape; spathe short -acuminate, one-half to two-thirds as long as the umbel, persistent; umbel fasciculate or fasciculately hemispherical, rather many-flowered, dense; pedicels equal, 2–3 times as long as perianth, bracteolate at base; segments of the substellate perianth white with a greenish nerve, 6–9 mm long, subequal, lanceolate or elliptic, obtuse to acutish; filaments two-thirds as long as perianth, connate and adnate to perianth for 1/4 their length, entire, subulate from a slightly enlarged base; style not exserted; capsule 5 mm long. July–August. Meadows, solonetz soils, and slopes, rarely as a weed. Cultivated in the Far East. – W. Siberia: Irt. (E.), Alt.; E. Siberia: Lena-Kol., Ang.- Say., Dau.; Far East: Ze.-Bu., Uss.; Centr. Asia (advent.): Pamir – Alai 164 (Roshan), Tien Shan. (Aleksandrovskii Range). Gen. distr.: Ind.-Him., Japan - China, Tibet. (Komarov 1935) (Figs. 12 and 13).

Fig. 12
A photograph of the flower cluster of Allium ramosum plants with flowers and pedicels.

Allium ramosum (Amaryllidaceae), cultivated in Tashkent, Tashkent, Uzbekistan (Photo O.K.Khojimatov)

Full size image
Fig. 13
A photograph of the flower clusters of Allium ramosum plants with flowers and pedicels.

Allium ramosum (Amaryllidaceae), cultivated in Tashkent, Tashkent, Uzbekistan (Photo O.K.Khojimatov)

Full size image

Allium rosenbachianum: Perennial; bulb globose, 1.5–2.5 cm thick; tunics blackish, papery; scape 50–70 cm long, ribbed by prominent nerves; leaves 2 or 3, linear-lanceolate to broadly linear, (0.5)–1.5 cm broad, nearly smooth-margined, much shorter than the scape; spathe short-acuminate, one-half to two-thirds as long as the umbel; umbel spherical, loosely many-flowered; pedicels unequal, the central to half as long again, 3–9 times the length of perianth, ebracteolate; segments of the stellate perianth dark violet, with a darker nerve, narrowly linear, gradually attenuate from base, acute, 7–10 mm long, at length recurved and twisted; filaments as long as perianth segments, adnate at base to perianth, united above into a ring, subulate from triangular base, the inner half as broad again; anthers violet; ovary short-stipitate, scabrous; capsule applanate-globose, ca. 5 mm in diameter. May. Loose-textured terraces in the middle mountain zone, in the shade of rocks and trees. – Central Asia: Pamir-Alai (SW). Endemic (Komarov 1935).

Allium sarawschanicum: Perennial; bulb globose, 1–2 cm thick; tunics blackish, papery; scape (20)–30–50–(70) cm long, ribbed by prominent nerves; leaves 1 or 2, linear-lanceolate, 1–4 mm broad, scabrous-margined, much shorter than the scape; spathe half as long as to slightly shorter than the umbel, short-acuminate; umbel spherical or subspherical, densely many-flowered; pedicels unequal, the central slightly longer, 2–3 times the length of perianth, ebracteolate; segments of the stellate perianth light rosy-violet, with a darker nerve, 6–8 mm long, linear, gradually attenuate from the middle, acute., at length recurved and twisted; filaments slightly shorter than perianth segments, subulate, adnate at base to perianth, united above into an entire-margined ring; ovary short-stipitate, smooth, with 6 crests; capsule subglobose, ca. 4 mm in diameter. May–June. Shady places. – Central Asia: Mtn. Turkmenistan. Endemic (Komarov 1935) (Figs. 14 and 15).

Fig. 14
A photograph of two wild Allium sarawschanicum plants on rocks.

Allium sarawschanicum (Amaryllidaceae), Kashkadariya region, Uzbekistan. (Photo N.Yu. Beshko)

Full size image
Fig. 15
A photograph of cultivated Allium sarawschanicum plants with clusters of flowers on each plant.

Allium sarawschanicum (Amaryllidaceae), Tashkent Botanical Garden, Tashkent, Uzbekistan. (Photo N.Yu. Beshko)

Full size image

Allium sativum: Bulbous herb growing to about 60 cm tall. Bulb rounded, composed of up to 15 smaller cloves. Leaves 4–12, sword-shaped attached to an underground stem. Flowers borne in a dense, spherical cluster on a spike up to 25 cm long. The young flower head is enclosed in a long-beaked pair of enclosing bracts, which become papery and split to reveal the flowers. Individual flower stalks arise from a common point. Flowers greenish-white or pinkish about 3 mm long. Bulbils are often interspersed among the flowers. Garlic was domesticated long ago and is mentioned in ancient Egyptian, Greek, Indian, and Chinese writings. Garlic bulbs from about 1500 BC were found in the tomb of Tutankhamen, and garlic is mentioned in the Bible and Qur’an. Garlic is believed to originate from Central Asia (Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and western China) (Macbride and Weberbauer 1936–1995) (Fig. 16).

Fig. 16
A photograph of cultivated Allium sativum plants in rows.

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae), garden, Chicani, Bolivia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

Full size image

Allium stipitatum: Perennial; bulb applanate -globose, 3–6 cm thick; tunics blackish, almost papery, enclosing a solitary large smooth bulblet; scape 60–150 cm long smooth; leaves 4–6, lorate, 2–4 cm broad, smooth-margined, hairy 268 beneath, rarely glabrate; pedicels subequal, 3–6 times the length of perianth, ebracteolate; segments of the stellate perianth lilac, distinctly nerved, 9 mm long, gradually attenuate from base, acute, at length recurved and twisted; filaments as long as perianth segments, adnate at base to perianth, united above into a ring, rather gradually subulate from triangular base, the base of inner filaments twice as broad; ovary short-stipitate, scabrous; capsule applanate-globose, ca. 5 mm in diameter. May – June. Loosely – textured slopes in the middle mountain zone. – Central Asia: Pamir – Alai. Endemic (Komarov 1935) (Figs. 17 and 18).

Fig. 17
A photograph of wild Allium stipitatum plants with single cluster in each plant.

Allium stipitatum (Amaryllidaceae), Tashkent region, Uzbekistan. (Photo N.Yu. Beshko)

Full size image
Fig. 18
A photograph of wild Allium stipitatum plants, each with a single flower cluster at the end of a long peduncle.

Allium stipitatum (Amaryllidaceae), Tashkent region, Uzbekistan. (Photo N.Yu. Beshko)

Full size image

Allium suworowii: Perennial; bulb ovoid, 2–3 cm in diameter; tunics subcoriaceous, grayish, splitting, clasping the scape base; scape 30–100 cm long, inconspicuously nerved; leaves 2–6, lorate, 5–20 mm broad, scabrous-margined, glaucescent, much shorter than the scape; spathe short-acuminate, two-thirds as long as the umbel; umbel hemispherical or spherical, densely many-flowered; pedicels equal, 2–5 times the length of perianth, ebracteolate; segments of the stellate perianth rosy-violet, with a darker nerve, ca. 4 mm long, linear, obtuse, at length recurved and twisted; filaments slightly shorter and slightly longer than perianth segments adnate to perianth at base, distinct above, subulate from enlarged base, subequal; ovary subsessile, smooth; capsule broadly ovoid, ca. 5 mm in diameter. May. Loosely textured soils in foothills, chiefly as weed in oases. – Central Asia: Mtn. Turkmenistan (Kushkinskii River), Syr Darya, Pamir-Alai, Tien Shan (Komarov 1935) (Figs. 19 and 20).

Fig. 19
A photograph of wild Allium suworowii plants with flower clusters.

Allium suworowii (Amaryllidaceae), Tashkent region, Uzbekistan. (Photo N.Yu. Beshko)

Full size image
Fig. 20
A photograph of a flower cluster of the Allium suworowii plant with tiny flowers and pedicels in the cluster.

Allium suworowii (Amaryllidaceae), Tashkent region, Uzbekistan. (Photo N.Yu. Beshko)

Full size image

Allium tschimganicum: Perennial; bulb globose, 1–2 cm thick; tunics grayish, papery; scape 35–85 cm long, furrowed by prominent nerves; leaves (l)–2–3, linear to linear-lanceolate, 5–20 mm broad, scabrous-margined, much shorter than the scape; spathe half as long as the umbel, short -acuminate; umbel hemispherical or rarely spherical, rather densely many-flowered; pedicels subequal, half as long again as the perianth, ebracteolate segments of the stellate perianth rose, with a violet nerve, ca. 4 mm long, linear, obtusish, at length recurved and twisted; filaments slightly shorter than to equaling the perianth, adnate to perianth at base, distinct above, subulate from triangular base, the base of inner filaments 2–3 times as broad; ovary short-stipitate; scabrous; capsule subglobose to ovoid, ca. 4 mm in diameter. June. Gravelly slopes. – Central Asia: Tien Shan (West Tien Shan). Endemic (Komarov 1935) (Figs. 21 and 22).

Fig. 21
A photograph of the flower cluster of the Allium tschimganicum plant with tiny flowers and pedicels.

Allium tschimganicum (Amaryllidaceae), Tashkent region, Uzbekistan. (Photo N.Yu. Beshko)

Full size image
Fig. 22
A close-up photograph of the flower cluster of the Allium tschimganicum plant. The flowers are tiny with spiky petals.

Allium tschimganicum (Amaryllidaceae), Tashkent region, Uzbekistan. (Photo N.Yu. Beshko)

Full size image

Phytochemistry

Bulbs contain 8–14% sugars (fructose, sucrose, maltose, inulin polysaccharide), proteins (1.5–2%), vitamins (ascorbic acid), flavonoid quercetin, enzymes, saponins, mineral salts of potassium, phosphorus, iron, etc., phytoncides. Yellow, purple and white onion Green leaves of onions contain sugars, proteins, ascorbic acid. In the bulbs and leaves there is an essential oil that gives them a specific smell and sharp taste, sulfur-containing compounds, iodine, organic acids (malic and citric), mucus, pectin substances, glycosides (Komarov 1935).

Local Medicinal Uses

Allium caspium bulbs are used inwardly as an anti-helminthic agent; porridge from fresh grated bulbs is externally used for arthritis and bruises (Dadabaeva 1996).

Allium cepa: In popular medicine it is considered as a great disinfectant, and in this way it is used in the form of plasters on the affected part and in cases of bites and insect bites. The onion is also considered effective to reduce inflammation and disinfect the respiratory tract: it is used especially to treat hoarseness, sore throats and inflammation of the nasal mucosa. Consuming it as juice or broth mixed with a little sugar and drunk in glasses, combined with the application of plasters, is used successfully to treat inflammations, wounds, boils, abscesses and fistulas. Fresh bulbs are used to treat high blood pressure, varicose veins, for blood cleansing, diabetes, rheumatism, asthma and cough. Fresh bulbs are used to treat cough. In Peru used for cough and bronchial problems (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). In Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh used for hair health (Gairola et al. 2014). In popular Colombian medicine it is considered as a great disinfectant, and in this way it is used in the form of plasters on the affected part and in cases of bites and insect bites. The onion is also considered effective to reduce inflammation and disinfect the respiratory tract: it is used especially to treat hoarseness, sore throats and inflammation of the nasal mucosa. Consuming it as juice or broth mixed with a little sugar and drunk in glasses, combined with the application of plasters, is used successfully to treat inflammations, wounds, boils, abscesses and fistulas (Díaz 2003; García Barriga 1974; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). Bolivia: Fresh bulbs are used to treat high blood pressure, varicose veins, for blood cleansing, diabetes, rheumatism, asthma and cough (Bussmann et al. 2016a). Ecuador: Fresh bulbs are used to treat cough (Béjar et al. 2002; Bussmann and Sharon 2006a, 2007a). In Peru used for cough and bronchial problems (Monigatti et al. 2013).

Allium giganteum bulbs in the form of a patch are used for furuncles and bruises, as a wound healing agent (Dadabaeva 1996).

Decoction of bulbs Allium karataviense is used in the treatment of bronchopnevonia (Sakhobiddinov 1948a, b). Bulbs boiled in milk for gastralgia, enterocolitis, colitis; a patch of bulbs in a mixture with cotton oil is used for carbuncles, furuncles (Dadabaeva 1996).

A patch of shredded Allium oschaninii bulbs in warm form is applied at furuncles; bulbs fried in oil are eaten for gastralgia, colitis, enterocolitis and chronic constipation. Baked bulbs of Allium pskemense are used to treat rotting wounds by applying them to the affected parts of the skin, and decoction of fresh bulbs is used for various inflammatory diseases of the lungs and bronchial tubes (Khojimatov 2008).

Porridge from bulbs of Allium ramosum is used inwardly as an anti-helminthic agent; pebbled stems are used in epilepsy (Dadabaeva 1996).

A decoction of Allium rosenbachianum bulbs is used for hysteria, neurosis, pulmonary tuberculosis, and bronchiectasis. Toasted bulbs for gastralgia; bulbs boiled in milk are used as a laxative.

Allium sarawschanicum bulbs are used for asthenia, colitis, enteritis, rhinitis, neuralgia and stroke; softened stems in toothache (Dadabaeva 1996).

Allium sativum: The tincture has antimicrobial properties and is used in atherosclerosis, colitis, and diarrhea. Fresh or cooked onions are applied topically for certain skin diseases (abrasions, sores). Fresh juice from the leaves and bulbs with sugar used for the treatment of diseases of the upper respiratory tract. Onion improves vision, onion juice prevents the development of cataracts in the early stages. Alcohol tinctures regulate blood pressure improve the elasticity of capillaries (Bussmann 2017; Fayvush et al. 2017; Isotova et al. 2010; Gabrielyan 2001). The tincture has antimicrobial properties and is used in atherosclerosis, colitis, and diarrhea. Fresh or cooked onions are applied topically for certain skin diseases (abrasions, sores). Fresh juice from the leaves and bulbs with sugar used for the treatment of diseases of the upper respiratory tract (Gammarman and Grom 1976; Grossheim 1952; Gubanov et al. 1976; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2014; Turova and Sapojnikova 1982; Zolotnitskaya 1958–1965). According to the Armenian medieval healers (Amirdovlat 1927; Harutyunyan 1990; Mardjanyan 2008; Nosal and Nosal 1991; Vardanyan 1979) onion improves vision, onion juice prevents the development of cataracts in the early stages. Alcohol tinctures regulate blood pressure improve the elasticity of capillaries. Allium sativum is used in Pakistan to treat blood pressure and menopausal problems and as aphrodisiac (Sher et al. 2016), for indigestion and goiter (Reang et al. 2016). Commonly used in Colombia against intestinal worms, to reduce blood pressure, reduce blood sugar, as an antispasmodic, to lower levels of cholesterol in the blood and for intestinal diseases. It is usually used raw, as a disinfectant and as a tonic for the pituitary gland; It is a plant that also relieves diabetes and rheumatism in general. Garlic is also used to regulate liver function, cure hemorrhoids, varicose veins, gastrointestinal infections and dysentery (Díaz 2003; Fonnegra-Gómez and Villa-Londoño 2011; Fonnegra Gómez et al. 2012; García Barriga 1974; Ministerio de Protección Social 2008; Pérez Arbeláez 1996). The whole plant is used for witchcraft and good luck; fresh bulbs are used to treat arthritis, rheumatism, for blood cleansing, high blood pressure, diabetes, high cholesterol, hemorrhage, bronchitis, cough, gastritis, intestinal infections, liver problems, cancer and as analgesic, circulatory stimulant, tonic and vermifuge (Bussmann et al. 2018a, b). Bolivia: Fresh bulbs are use to treat high blood pressure, cough, tonsilitis, hemorrhage and for cultural illnesses (e.g. that the kari kari (a spirit) stays away and to stay young) (Bussmann et al. 2016a, 2018a, b). Peru: Fresh bulbs are used to treat cough, bronchitis and colds and other respiratory disorders (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b, 2007b; Bussmann et al. 2010a, 2011; Monigatti et al. 2013). Its antibacterial activity has been confirmed.

Fresh leaf juice of Allium stipitatum is used inside for diarrhea enteritis, gastric ulcer, neurosis, epilepsy; fresh bulbs for gastralgia, gingivitis, stomatitis; externally baked bulbs in furunculous; bulb juice in dermatomycosis (Sakhobiddinov 1948a, b).

Allium suworowii marinated bulbs are used for acute respiratory infections, initial stages of tuberculosis, broncho-pneumonia, laryngitis, epilepsy neurosis, stroke and concussion. Leaves juice are used against angina pectoris and atherosclerosis (Dadabaeva 1996).

The local population of the Parkent district of the Tashkent region massively procures the aboveground mass of Allium tschimganicum in the spring, considering it a good general strengthening agent, after winter vitamin deficiency and long-term illness. It increases blood pressure in hypotension and contributes to an increase in the overall tone of the body (Khojimatov 2008; Egamberdieva).

Medicinal Uses of Other Species

Allium carolinianum: to remedy diabetes (Ullah et al. 2019), as appetite stimulant, tonic, to treat jaundice, skin and eye inflammations (Pawera et al. 2015). For joint pain and gastrointestinal disorders (Abbas et al. 2016). In Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh used for constipation, female ailments, joint pain, indigestion, swollen joints (Gairola et al. 2014).

Allium griffithianum serves to remedy colic and vomiting (Muhammad et al. 2019).

Allium jaquemontii: Fresh leaves are plucked though they are bitter in taste, but when are eaten raw or cooked along with other pot herbs is a good remedy for gastrointestinal disorders especially stomachache (Jan et al. 2017). Rhizome is used for stomach disorder (Muhammad et al. 2019), unequal mammary glands and hypertension (Ahmad et al. 2015), as well as stomach disorders (Muhammad et al. 2019).

Allium oreoprasum: In Nepal used to treat colds, cough and sore throat. The species showed antiviral properties (Rajbhandari et al. 2007).

Allium ursinum is used for wound healing in the form of a decoction, gargle and applications as disinfectant and wound healing remedy in diseases of the skin, for abscess and women’s diseases. The plant us used raw in scurvy. Allium species are used as anthelminthic (Bussmann 2017; Fayvush et al. 2017).

Allium victorialis is used for Infectious diseases: Used in the fresh form as antimicrobial and anthelmintic remedy (Bussmann 2017; Fayvush et al. 2017). In Jammu and Kashmir used for toothache and diarrhea (Gairola et al. 2014).

Allium giganteum: During the spring people use its fresh leaves in traditional foods such as: Ugro, Oshi Burida, Otala, Hirik, Oshi tupa, Mastoba. It provides a unique taste, and people believe it has health benefits (nutraceutical). Local people also dry its leaves and use it in different traditional foods as a spice during winter times. The bulbs are collected and pickled. Onion pickles are very popular in Tajikistan (Bussmann et al. 2020).

Allium karataviense: In Middle Asia used for lung problems. The decoction of bulbs is used in traditional medicine for pulmonary diseases and strong shortness in breath (Bussmann et al. 2020).

Allium odorum is used in Peru for bronchitis, asthma, bruises (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b).

Allium proliferum: In Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh used for joint health (Gairola et al. 2014).

Allium ramosum is used in Peru for bronchitis, asthma, bruises (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b).

Allium stipitatum: Used as ornamental, in traditional medicine, and as a vegetable. The plants are applied in folk medicine against skin diseases. Plants are baked or cooked in honey and used against several diseases. The bulbs have disinfectant properties and are used to treat rheumatism and high blood pressure, and as a booster in the digestive tract (Bussmann et al. 2020).

Allium ursinum is used for wound healing in the form of a decoction, gargle and applications as disinfectant and wound healing remedy in diseases of the skin, for abscess and women’s diseases. The plant us used raw in scurvy (Grossheim 1942, 1943). Allium species are used as anthelminthic.

Allium victorialis is used for Infectious diseases: Used in the fresh form as antimicrobial and anthelmintic remedy.

Allium przewalskianum: In Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh given to women after delivery to improve strength, for dysentery, stomach-ache, abdominal gas, hypertension, stomach pain (Gairola et al. 2014).

Allium rubellum: In Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh used for earache, as expectorant, for giddiness, insect bites and respiratory troubles (Gairola et al. 2014).

Allium consanguineum: In Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh used as aphrodisiac and stimulant (Gairola et al. 2014).

Allium odorum is used in Peru for bronchitis, asthma, bruises (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020).

Allium sativum: Commonly used against intestinal worms, to reduce blood pressure, reduce blood sugar, as an antispasmodic, to lower levels of cholesterol in the blood and for intestinal diseases. It is usually used raw, as a disinfectant and as a tonic for the pituitary gland; It is a plant that also relieves diabetes and rheumatism in general. Garlic is also used to regulate liver function, cure hemorrhoids, varicose veins, gastrointestinal infections and dysentery. The whole plant is used for witchcraft and good luck; fresh bulbs are used to treat arthritis, rheumatism, for blood cleansing, high blood pressure, diabetes, high cholesterol, hemorrhage, bronchitis, cough, gastritis, intestinal infections, liver problems, cancer and as analgesic, circulatory stimulant, tonic and vermifuge. Fresh bulbs are use to treat high blood pressure, cough, tonsilitis, hemorrhage and for cultural illnesses (e.g. that the kari kari (a spirit) stays away and to stay young). Fresh bulbs are used to treat cough, bronchitis and colds and other respiratory disorders. Its antibacterial activity has been confirmed (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). Used in Pakistan to treat blood pressure and menopausal problems and as aphrodisiac (Sher et al. 2016), for indigestion and goiter (Reang et al. 2016).

Allium gilgiticum serves to treat pain and headache (Wali et al. 2019).

Local Food Uses

Allium cepa, A. pskemense, A. ramosum and A. sativum are used as a seasoning and as a food (Béjar et al. 2002; Díaz 2003; García Barriga 1974; Pérez Arbeláez 1996; Dadabaeva 1996; Khojimatov 2021). Canned bulbs of Allium stipitatum and Allium suworowii are a favorite treat of the population (https://iqmena.livejournal.com/168890.html). In spring, the aboveground part of A. tschimganicum is widely used by the local population of the Parkent district of the Tashkent region in the preparation of green somsa (fried pies). It is believed that this product has the vitamin and general strengthening properties of the human body (Khojimatov 2008) (Figs. 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, and 28).

Fig. 23
A photograph of a pile of Allium cepa bulbs with dried roots.

Allium cepa (Amaryllidaceae), on Parkent market, Tashkent, Uzbekistan. (Photo Z.S. Bagirova)

Full size image
Fig. 24
A photograph of two tied bunches of the leaves of the Allium ramosum plant.

Allium ramosum (Amaryllidaceae), on Parkent market, Tashkent, Uzbekistan. (Photo Z.S. Bagirova)

Full size image
Fig. 25
A photograph of tied bunches of the leaves of Allium ramosum plant among other greens.

Allium ramosum (Amaryllidaceae), on Parkent market, Tashkent, Uzbekistan. (Photo O.K. Khojimatov)

Full size image
Fig. 26
A photograph of a pile of Allium sativum bulbs with dried skins.

Allium sativum (Amaryllidaceae), on Parkent market, Tashkent, Uzbekistan. (Photo Z.S. Bagirova)

Full size image
Fig. 27
A photograph of freshly dug up bulbs of the Allium stipitatum plant.

Allium stipitatum (Amaryllidaceae), harvested onions, Sukhandarya region, Uzbekisan. (Photo O.T. Turginov)

Full size image
Fig. 28
A photograph of pickled bulbs of Allium stipitatum plant on a tray.

Allium stipitatum (Amaryllidaceae), pickled onions, Samarkand region, Uzbekisan. (Photo A.N. Khujanov)

Full size image

Food Uses of Other Species

Allium carolinianum is eaten as vegetable (Ullah et al. 2019). and used as condiment (Abbas et al. 2019).

Allium humile and Allium stacheyi: Used as food in Gharwal (Thakur et al. 2017).

Allium victorialis has a very strong garlic taste. It is used fresh, fermented and salted. Bussmann 2017; Fayvush et al. 2017).

Allium ursinum is used raw and in the form of a marinade with salt and vinegar. Young leaves of Allium ursinum fried thoroughly in oil with onions, with either walnuts or eggs added in some regions) is eaten and eat with yoghurt (Bussmann 2017; Fayvush et al. 2017).

The consumption of leaves of Allium ursinum and A. victorialis is widespread in the Caucasus. A. ursinum is consumed at lower and A. victorialis at higher altitudes. The use of the latter species is more frequent. It was customary to eat the leaves pickled (Bussmann 2017; Fayvush et al. 2017).

Allium karataviense: In Tajikistan the whole plant is eaten (Sokolov 1994a, b). Leaves and bulbs are widely used in traditional foods such as Oshi burida, Oshi tuppa, Alafjush (Bussmann et al. 2020).

Allium rosenbachianum: Local people use fresh leaves as well as dried leaves depending on the season in Tajik national dishes such as Oshi burida, Ugro, Umoch, Otalla, Birinjoba, Hirik (Bussmann et al. 2020).

Allium stipitatum: Young and undeveloped bulbs are pickled in aromatic vinegar (Tajik ‘pijozi anzur’, Uzbek ‘anzur pijoz’, Persian ‘mu-sir’, Dari ‘toshi’) and used as appetizer and with meals (Bussmann et al. 2020).

Allium tenuissimum: A very widely used species: The inflorescence and seeds can be used as condiments. All kinds of livestock like to eat, is an excellent forage plant. Zama is widely distributed, but most popular in Central Inner Mongolia, the Loess Plateau area. It comes from Mongolian phonetic translation, but after the spread of the Han people, it has become Zemeng, Zameng and other similar names. This species has very fine and narrow leaves and is extremely drought-tolerant (Bussmann et al. 2020).

Allium trautvetterianum: People use the leaves of this onion species fresh as well as dried depending the season. It is important in Tajik national foods, such as Modeloba, Oshiburida, Oshitupa, Umoch, Ugro, Mastoba (Bussmann et al. 2020).

Lots of Allium species serve as seasoning for the Naxi in Yunnan (Zhang et al. 2016).

Allium gilgiticum as vegetable in Gilgit-Baltistan (Wali et al. 2019).

Young leaves and stems of Allium paradoxum together with the bulbs in fresh or pickled form are used as seasoning for various dishes (Grossheim 1952; Gubanov et al. 1976; Tsaturyan and Gevorgyan 2007). The leaves and stems of Allium paradoxum together with bulbs are used as one of the ingredients for cooking the national dishes Dovga (a soup cooked from yogurt, various greens, a small amount of rice and eggs. In some regions of the country a small amount of peas is added to it. It is considered good for digestion and for treatment of intestinal cramps and has warming and diaphoretic effects), Kutab (various edible greens baked in a thin rolled dough. In some regions of the country white cheese, or cottage cheese. Before it is eaten the rolls are greased with butter, often mixed with yoghurt), and Kuku (an omelet with various greens, sometimes with added meat or fish, and often mixed with yoghurt. This food is believed to strengthen the organism and stimulates libido, especially if eaten with cinnamon and fried onions).

Allium victorialis has a very strong garlic taste. It is used fresh, fermented and salted (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). Allium ursinum is used raw and in the form of a marinade with salt and vinegar (Flora of Azerbaijan 1950–1961). Hallyar (young leaves of Allium ursinum fried thoroughly in oil with onions, with either walnuts or eggs added in some reginos) is eaten and eat with yoghurt. The consumption of leaves of Allium ursinum and A. victorialis is widespread in Georgia: A. ursinum is consumed at lower and A. victorialis at higher altitudes. The use of the latter species is more frequent. It was customary to eat the leaves pickled (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016c, b, c; Javakhishvili 1986; Makalatia 1933; Oshoradze 1969; Sujashvili and Pitskheliauri 2005) or boiled and prepared in a form of “mkhali” (a meal of boiled, squashed and chopped herbs) (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016b, c, d; Javakhishvili 1986; Makalatia 1933; Makalatia 1934; Oshoradze 1969). There were also various ways of “mkhali” (a mixture of herbs prepared as spread) preparation: in alpine regions melted butter was mixed with boiled, squashed and chopped leaves (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016b, c, d; Javakhishvili 1986; Makalatia 1933), while in the lowlands oil was used instead of butter and vinegar was also added (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016b, c, d; Javakhishvili 1986). Greens as cilantro, mint, summer savory, and basil were added to “mkhali” (Javakhishvili 1986). Sometimes chopped and boiled leaves were mixed with curds, wrapped in pastry and boiled (Oshoradze 1969). Pickles were sometimes not only eaten raw, but rather used for “ketseuli” – a pie filled with herbs and sometimes mixed with cheese (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016b, c, d). Leaves were also stored for winter dried or salted in pots (Makalatia 1933; Oshoradze 1969). In Khevi leaves were eaten raw (Makalatia 1934). Bulbs were used as garlic substitute in Svan salt (Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016b, c, d). In Khevi bulbs were eaten as garlic (Sujashvili and Pitskheliauri 2005). Leaves and stems are also pickled.

Local Handicraft and Other Uses

Allium ramosum and Allium sativum are used in Peru for bad air / mal aire and to cleanse the house of spirits (Bussmann and Sharon 2006b; Bussmann et al., 2010a; Bussmann and Sharon 2015a, b), always in mixture with other species (Bussmann et al. 2010).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses of Other Species

Allium giganteum: The plant produces a big umbel of flowers and is used in horticulture as an ornamental plant (Bussmann et al. 2020).

Allium karavatiense: It is a highly appreciated ornamental plant for its beautiful inflorescence (Bussmann et al. 2020).

Allium stipitatum: Piyozi anzur is used as ornamental plant because of its flower umbels. However, overharvesting of bulbs from natural populations for different uses has resulted in inclusion of this species in the Red Book of Tajikistan (Bussmann et al. 2020).

Allium rosenbachianum: The plant is used as an ornamental (Bussmann et al. 2020; Fritsch 2016; Boboev et al. 2015).

Allium trautvetterianum: Very rarely offered as ornamental (Bussmann et al. 2020).

Allium odorum and Allium sativum are used in Peru for bad air / mal aire and to cleanse the house of spirits (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020). In Ethiopia used to treat hepatitis in livestock.

Allium gilgiticum as forage (Wali et al. 2019).