Keywords

Learning Objectives

By the end of the chapter, the reader should be able to:

  • identify the potential of simulation from a collaborative perspective in teacher training;

  • understand the value of simulation as a methodology to enhance dialogic learning;

  • comprehend the concatenated functioning of active methodologies;

  • identify some pitfalls of EFL/ESL instruction in secondary school through the future teachers’ comments.

1 Introduction

Teacher education has experienced significant changes in Europe. Traditionally, teacher training has been perceived to be the sole responsibility of universities. However, the demands for highly qualified and versatile teachers, in accordance with the Bologna Declaration (1999), call for the development of curriculum design inspired by deep-learning principles. Deep learning promotes the qualities and competences teachers need by building complex understanding and meaning rather than focusing on accumulative knowledge that can today be gleaned through search engines, as the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) clearly states. This context justifies the need for a methodological change in teaching practices. Today’s teachers need to be trained to try learning methodologies themselves, compare and contrast the methodological fundamentals and their implementation, and design integrative proposals for classroom intervention. Simulation in this study is used as a journey future teachers undertake to develop teaching competences from experimentation to simulation creation.

Although it is true that there is a relatively short tradition of simulation in teacher preparation (Flanagan & Nestel, 2004 in Al-Elq, 2010), there is already sufficient literature about the great potential of simulation in the development of professional competences: dialogic learning, teamwork, negotiation, decision-making, and the development of interpersonal relationships (Asal & Blake, 2006; Blum & Scherer, 2007; Ekker, 2004; Ekker & Sutherland, 2009; Sutherland, 2000, 2002, among others).

Simulations create a complete environment within which students interact to apply previous knowledge and practice skills related to their discipline. Simulations also serve as models for teachers to demonstrate the integration of different methodologies as they move from the briefing phase (flipped classroom, task-based learning, webquests, class debate...) to the action (simulation) to the debriefing phase (reflective learning, focus group). Through simulation, teachers integrate multiple teaching goals in a single process (Angelini, 2016, 2021; Angelini & García-Carbonell, 2019; Angelini et al., 2015; García-Carbonell, 1998; García-Carbonell & Watts, 2012; García-Carbonell et al., 2001, 2012; Wedig, 2010). Simulations provide opportunities for active participation to develop interactive and communication skills and link knowledge and theory to application (Hertel & Millis, 2002).

The gains of simulation applied to language learning are discussed at length by Crookall and Oxford (1990) and García-Carbonell et al. (2001). Advantages include the immersion in language learning through meaningful situations, immediate feedback through teamwork, constant interaction, and lower anxiety. Empirical research conducted by Angelini (2012), Angelini and García-Carbonell (2019), García-Carbonell (1998), García-Carbonell and Watts (2012), García-Carbonell et al. (2001), and Rising (1999, 2009) supports the effectiveness of simulations in the development of communicative competence in English as a foreign language (EFL).

For example, there is qualitative research based on students’ perceptions after a telematic simulation. Watts et al. (2011) found that students’ motivation increased during the simulation and that their interpersonal skills were reinforced. Andreu-Andrés and García-Casas (2011) found that students had fun while learning. Woodhouse (2011) demonstrated that a computer-assisted simulation greatly helped EFL students to consolidate linguistic structures as well as professional skills such as negotiating, decision-making, and working collaboratively. Angelini and García-Carbonell (2014) also corroborated the effectiveness of simulation and gaming in improving oral proficiency in EFL along with the development of student responsibility and the generic skills mentioned above. Thus, in light of the virtues that simulations have to offer in teacher education, this study poses the following research question:

Research Question: Can the creation of simulation scenarios be an effective way to introduce simulations as a classroom technique?

2 Methodological Integration

Future teachers of a postgraduate course on teaching methodologies are presented with a simulation scenario to analyze. They follow the conventional procedure: a briefing phase in which the scenario is studied and the problems are identified. Teams of five members are created and profiles are assigned. The teams go through the simulation phase to deal with the several challenges presented and try to find thorough solutions in light of the research they have previously conducted in the briefing phase. Debriefing unfolds as expected, first intra-group reflections on their involvement and participation, their learning and perceptions. So far, future teachers have experienced simulation by doing it themselves. The shift in the proposal comes when these future teachers are now asked to create their own simulation scenarios and profiles to be applied to secondary school students.

Following the flipped classroom model, future teachers are first presented with specific literature on simulation. By flipping the classroom, we invert the traditional teacher-centered method, delivering instruction online outside of class time and bringing simulation discussion into the classroom (Strayer, 2007, 2012; Tourón et al., 2014; Tucker, 2012). In this way, the flipped model uses educational technology to deliver theory and background materials and serves to promote class time economy.

2.1 Flipped Learning and Classroom Dynamics

It is important to identify the main pillars flipped learning relies on to be able to apply it properly. According to the Flipped Learning Network30, to engage in the flipped model, teachers must incorporate a flexible environment in and out of class, a learning culture, intentional content, and professionalism.

Creating a flexible environment involves rearranging the classroom design. In our case, there are four learning spaces or corners, in which future teachers in teams deal with different tasks.

As our main interest is to introduce simulation as a teaching strategy to enhance English learning, the classroom learning corners delve into discussion meeting points:

  1. (a)

    briefing: how can you engage your students to participate in a simulation? What aspects would you need to consider before presenting the scenario? Would you flip the classes to introduce some content related to the scenario? How would you make sure your students are sufficiently prepared to carry out the action? What criteria would you follow to make the teams?

  2. (b)

    action: What is your role as a facilitator of the simulation? What aspects should you consider when facilitating? What norms would you remind yourself and your students to consider? How would note-taking be conducted? Would you record the students?

  3. (c)

    debriefing: How would you go about the reflection? How would you share your facilitation notes? How would your comments and questions be conducive to reinforce learning?

  4. (d)

    simulation creation: Bearing in mind your students in the practice school, create a simulation adapted to the students’ interests, learning outcomes, and English level. Pay special attention to all the simulation phases.

By setting our future teachers this challenge, we provide more flexible and individualized instruction as we offer the opportunity for adequate tutorial guidance and scaffolding material in smaller groups. Thus, the flipped model helps maximize each learner’s potential for success, as teachers can move around the classroom, approach individual learners, and identify learning styles, interests, abilities, and difficulties to provide differentiated instruction (Fuller, 2015; Hiemstra & Sisco, 1990; Jonassen & Grabowski, 2012; Mazur et al., 2015).

In addition, another flipped learning pillar is the learning culture. Our future teachers demonstrate commitment in the construction of knowledge. They gain autonomy by doing research on simulation outside of the class, so this instructional shift from a teacher-centered to a learner-centered approach provides more opportunities to deal with a variety of topics in class and create a rich learning environment (Bailey et al., 2013; Bergmann et al., 2013).

The implementation of the flipped classroom model demands a high degree of professionalism, as we must provide relevant and individualized feedback, carry out ongoing formative assessment, and guide future teachers on their reflections and proposals (Bergmann et al., 2013; Bergmann & Sams, 2012; Berret, 2012; Musallam, 2014).

3 Materials and Methods

A group of postgraduate students (N = 57) were asked to respond to a classroom-based experience in the official postgraduate course titled ‘Didactic Resources for Teaching EFL and Literature in Secondary Schools’. The data were collected from two consecutive courses.

Following the flipped learning model, future teachers used text and video materials uploaded to the virtual campus to prepare for class sessions. Before creating their simulation, future teachers participated in a simulation themselves. (See simulation in Appendix). Then, in teams of up to 5–6 members, future teachers worked together on the design of complete simulations on common topics dealt with in secondary schools: the use of mobile phones in class, homework, a balanced diet, workout addiction, among others. The ultimate goal was to develop scenarios, profiles, procedural norms, and debriefing instructions. Figure 10.1 describes the procedure followed.

Fig. 10.1
figure 1

Complete process in simulation creation

Full size image

First, the future teachers participate in a complete simulation (Masterminders’ School) to, in Dewey’s words, ‘learn by doing’ (1938). Experiencing the simulation for themselves, the future teachers start to get the gist of the methodology they will later analyze.

Second, after going through all the phases of the simulation themselves, the future teachers are posed with the challenge: ‘create a simulation to be used in secondary school’. As most do not work yet, they are asked to have their placement school in mind to contextualize and adapt the simulation. Their research is two-fold: (a) find information about simulation in EFL, its virtues, its limitations, procedure, tips on facilitation and (b) find possible topics usually studied in the English subject in secondary school. The flipped classroom model is used in which videos and reading materials are consulted from the virtual campus. In class, learning corners are created to go about the four core aspects of research: briefing–action–debriefing–simulation creation.

Third, clear guidelines are provided on how to design a simulation. Future teachers work collaboratively on the simulation creation in same groups as for the ‘Masterminders School’ simulation.

Finally, the future teachers’ simulations are shared with the other groups and they receive feedback from their peers.

The future teachers reflect on the teaching proposal for the course by responding to the following question in writing: ‘Comment on your experience with simulation as a teaching-learning strategy’. Written responses (N = 57) are uploaded onto the university virtual campus and later extracted for analysis. The study follows a qualitative design that has reached a height, especially in the social sciences, where the role of participants and their perceptions are highlighted by their own discourse (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Goetz & Le Compte, 1988; Harris, 2005; Martínez, 2000; Rodríguez et al., 1996; Sandín Esteban, 2003; Vallés, 1997, 2002). Responses were first classified into initial categories and subcategories until saturation of the data with the aid of Dedoose Version 9.0.17. Finally, the main conceptual categories are defined and interpreted.

4 Results

The future teachers’ responses to ‘Comment on your experience with simulation as a teaching-learning strategy’ yielded three core categories: simulation in teacher education; simulation to enhance communication in English; integration of methodological approaches.

As for the first category, simulation in teacher education, most future teachers indicated the forceful quality of simulation in their degree. The whole subject was built around simulation which eased their understanding of the methodology. As some students reported:

Simulation should have been used in other subjects in our degree. I could feel the challenges from a very practical perspective, placing myself in my students’ shoes. (S3)

Simulation is a powerful strategy for all teachers. There is real practice about communicating with workmates, dealing with serious issues and finding good solutions. (S12)

Students’ comments have contributed to the ratification of two important aspects in teacher education: the importance of experiencing active methodologies in their degrees, some of which they would eventually use with their own students/learners; and the ignored simulation potential in teacher training. Several studies indicate that simulation requires a vast preparation on the part of the facilitator as well as his/her expertise to make the most of the experience (Agllias et al., 2021; Bradshaw et al., 2018, 2021; Pas et al., 2019). In contrast to traditional simulation instruction, in our study, the method emerged from experimentation of a simulation and later research instead of lecturing about simulation. In spite of all the virtues of simulation identified and extensively discussed in this volume, we may assume these might be some of the reasons why simulation is not widely adopted in teacher education programs.

The creation of simulations based on secondary school content material helped future teachers become more critical about the textbooks and material used in EFL lessons.

If I were a student in secondary, I would like English. I don’t see the point of having a book which is expensive and boring. (S17)

I should have learned more English had I done simulations in my classes. (S18)

Now, I feel I can adapt the material students use in the English lessons by creating simulations and communicative exercises. (S34)

In the second category simulation to enhance communication in English, the future teachers found numerous benefits. By using simulation, from simple ones to more demanding in terms of content knowledge and grammatical structures, most of the teachers indicated the need to manage a wider range of language-related skills.

I understand that simulation requires preparation in relation to content and vocabulary. The use of simulations in secondary school will help students learn more English than in conventional lessons. (S9)

Through the simulation, students will be able to use the target language with a clear purpose. They will not be restricted to answer common questions as in Cambridge exams. Instead, they will use their knowledge of a topic to create more knowledge using English as a vehicle for communication. (S33)

At this point, it is important to draw a distinction between simulation to enhance communication in English and simulation to foster English learning. Although these may look like synonymic terms, they are not. What the future teachers are observing is the purposeful nature of simulation in communication. It is not about the accurate use of the English language per se. It is about the need to have something to say about a specific topic. Simulation can become a powerful strategy to gain fluency in a foreign language (Angelini, 2021; Angelini & García-Carbonell, 2019; Crookall & Oxford, 1990; García-Carbonell et al., 2001). As the future teachers participated in a simulation themselves, they could elucidate the dialogic nature of simulation interactions.

The third category ‘integration of methodological approaches’, addresses the flexible nature of simulation. The different phases in the simulation require different methodologies to apply. In our study, we resorted to flipped classroom from a very instrumental perspective. We needed to save class time. So, instead of devoting time to theorize about simulation, we provided the future teachers with recorded and reading material to be prepared before coming to class. In this way, we were able to conduct meaningful discussions leading to the design of their own simulations.

I really learned by watching the videos though I was skeptical at first. Not knowing what to expect from the course made me feel uneasy. However, it was the first lessons and then things ran smoothly. I like the flipped model. I think I’ll use it in the future. (S6)

The classes were far more dynamic than other lessons I have had. I learned from the stations or corners because they had questions that triggered our knowledge about simulation. (S48)

As we can observe, changing methodologies may result ‘uneasy’ for some. However, it is important for facilitators to keep focused and indicate the learning outcomes expected. Working with simulation is like a journey in which students/participants and facilitators embark. There is a procedure to follow, there are many aspects to consider. A solid, rounded briefing will guarantee success in the simulation placement; a well-prepared facilitator will anticipate inconveniences and will work accordingly; a constructive debriefing will help consolidate the learning and will make the experience repeatable.

5 Conclusion

This chapter has attempted to answer the question ‘Can the creation of simulation scenarios be an effective way to introduce simulations as a classroom technique?’. We can argue that some of the findings are conducive to highlighting the value of simulation design in teacher training. The very flexible nature of simulation allows the integration of methodological approaches like the ones implemented in the study: flipped classroom and learning stations. The future teachers’ responses to the open question ‘Comment on your experience with simulation as a teaching-learning strategy’ confirmed the merits of the proposal. Simulation in teacher education is considered necessary to immerse future teachers in educational realities at a low risk and can become a fruitful strategy to promote communication over specific topics. Furthermore, by integrating the flipped learning model, learning station and simulation, we propose to plunge students into dynamics in which they are benefitted not only linguistically but also professionally. Although successive qualitative and quantitative studies over time and a broader sample may increase reliability in the integration of flipped classroom, learning station and simulation in foreign language learning, the results of the present study indicate that the approach can be an effective way to introduce simulation in foreign language classes in secondary education.