Keywords

JEL Codes

Introduction

This chapter summarizes the results of 14 studies that were conducted on the relationship between sector of employment and attitude toward bribery. Additional summaries will be published in the second volume of this series, The Ethics of Bribery: Country Studies (McGee & Benk, 2023). This volume includes summaries of the following studies:

  • Age – 26 studies (McGee & Benk, 2023a)

  • Confidence in government – 15 studies (McGee & Benk, 2023b)

  • Confidence in the justice system/courts – 6 studies (McGee & Benk, 2023k)

  • Confidence in the police – 7 studies (McGee & Benk, 2023c)

  • Education – 23 studies (McGee & Benk, 2023d)

  • Employment status – 17 studies (McGee & Benk, 2023e)

  • Ethnicity – 8 studies (McGee & Benk, 2023f)

  • Gender – 31 studies (McGee & Benk, 2023g)

  • Happiness – 19 studies (McGee & Benk, 2023h)

  • Health – 11 studies (McGee & Benk, 2023i)

  • Income – 18 studies (McGee & Benk, 2023j)

  • Marital status – 20 studies (McGee & Benk, 2023l)

  • Political viewpoint – 16 studies (McGee & Benk, 2023m)

  • Religious denomination – 19 studies (McGee & Benk, 2023n)

  • Religiosity – 12 studies (McGee & Benk, 2023o)

  • Social class – 20 studies (McGee & Benk, 2023p)

  • Sector of employment – 14 studies (McGee & Benk, 2023q)

  • Size of town – 10 studies (McGee & Benk, 2023r)

  • Twenty-four studies – 24 studies (McGee, 2023b)

  • Twenty-eight studies – 28 studies (McGee, 2023a)

Methodology

This chapter summarizes some of the findings of prior studies on the ethics of bribery. Some of the studies used the World Values Survey database as the basis for examining the relationship between sector of employment and the ethics of bribery. The survey question on bribery asked participants whether it is justifiable to accept a bribe in the course of business using a 10-point Likert scale where 1 = never justifiable and 10 = always justifiable. Other studies gathered opinions of students and others.

Country Studies

Argentina, Brazil, and Colombia [Three Latin American Countries]

(Hernandez & McGee 2013b)

  • Those who worked in the private and public sectors had similar views.

Australia

(Hernandez & McGee, 2014a)

  • Institution of occupation was not a significant variable.

Brazil, China, Germany, and the USA [Four Large Countries]

(Hernandez & McGee, 2012a)

  • Government sector workers were the most opposed to bribe taking, followed by self-employed people, those who worked at private non-profit organizations, and those who worked at private companies.

Canada, Mexico, and the USA [North America]

(Hernandez & McGee, 2013a)

  • Those who worked at public and private institutions were equally opposed to bribery.

  • Those who worked for non-profit institutions were only slightly less opposed to bribery. Self-employed individuals were significantly least opposed.

Egypt

(Hernandez & McGee, 2013c)

  • Institution of occupation (private vs. public sector) was not a significant variable.

Egypt, Indonesia, Iran, and Iraq [Four Muslim Countries]

(Hernandez & McGee, 2014b)

  • Those who worked at public institutions tended to be most opposed to bribery, while those at private non-profit institutions tended to be least opposed.

Ethiopia, Ghana, Rwanda, and South Africa [Four African Countries]

(Hernandez & McGee, 2014c)

  • Those who worked in public institutions were most strongly opposed to bribe taking, followed by those in private business.

  • Those who worked for private non-profit organizations were least opposed.

France, Germany, Great Britain, and Italy [Four European Countries]

(Hernandez & McGee, 2012b)

  • The group most opposed to bribery was the group that worked in public institutions, followed by those who worked in the private sector.

  • The group showing the least degree of opposition to bribe taking was the group who worked in private business.

Religious Studies

Atheist Attitudes Toward Bribery

(McGee et al., 2023b)

  • The private non-profit group was significantly less opposed to bribe taking than were the government and business groups.

Buddhist Attitudes Toward Bribery

(McGee et al., 2023c)

  • Sector of employment was not a significant demographic variable.

Christian Attitudes Toward Bribery

(McGee et al., 2023d)

  • Those who worked in the private, non-profit sector were the least opposed to bribe taking, while those who worked for governmental institution had the strongest opposition.

Hindu Attitudes Toward Bribery

(McGee et al., 2023e)

  • Although those who worked in government or public institutions had the least opposition to bribe taking, and those who worked in private non-profit organizations had the strongest opposition, the difference in mean scores was not significant.

Jewish Attitudes Toward Bribery

(McGee et al., 2023f)

  • Those who worked in the private non-profit sector showed the least opposition to bribe taking, while those who worked in government or public institution had the strongest opposition to bribe taking. However, the difference in mean scores was significant only at the 10% level (P = 0.095).

Muslim Attitudes Toward Bribery

(McGee et al., 2023a)

  • Those in the private non-profit sector were significantly less opposed to taking bribes than those in the government or private business sector.