Abstract
During the early years of the 2020s, large parts of the world came to a standstill instigated by COVID-19. The pandemic dramatically affected people’s mobility, including intensive lockdowns, border closures, and prohibition of local and international travel. These restrictions had dramatic implications for tourism, particularly for destinations that live from it and need it to survive. Locations, particularly with cultural heritage attractions such as monuments, historical buildings, archaeological sites, landscapes, urban ensembles, and sites known for their customs, folklore, oral and performing traditions, and religious manifestations, suffered the consequences. While digital leisure experiences cannot replace in-person visits, recent developments in digitalisation, such as 360-degree technology, virtual and augmented reality, and gaming, both ‘serious’—video games designed for educational objectives—and for pure entertainment, are increasingly impacting how we visit, interact with and consume cultural heritage. This chapter investigates the latest trends in digitalisation in its application to cultural heritage tourism in Asia, particularly in contexts of crisis like the COVID-19 pandemic, where in-person opportunities to engage with cultural heritage assets are significatively reduced. The chapter argues that, albeit initially largely unintentional, the push for these new technologies during the pandemic has generated more sustainable and equal access paths to cultural heritage assets, particularly for visitors with limited means or mobility.
For the purpose of this chapter, the use of Asia corresponds to the distinct UNESCO definition of the Asia and the Pacific region (APAC), which includes Northeast Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, Central Asia, Australia, and Oceania.
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Notes
- 1.
This share had expanded continuously from 16% in 2000 to 25% in 2019. Asia is the second most visited region in the world after Europe and has seen the fastest growth in recent years. As of 2019, China was the top destination in Asia, with 66 million international arrivals, followed by Thailand with 40 million and Japan with 32 million. Other top Asian destinations are Malaysia, Hong Kong (China), Macao (China), Vietnam, and India.
- 2.
In the 2000s, partly due to its integration into UNESCO frameworks and Conventions (2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, 2005 Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions), the notion of cultural heritage expanded to include notions of immateriality and orality, such as customs, folklore, oral and performing traditions, religious or profane manifestations (Barrio et al., 2012).
- 3.
APEC stands for Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, a regional economic forum established in 1989 to leverage the growing interdependence of the Asia-Pacific. Although the majority of APEC’s 21 members are Asian countries, it also includes members in the Americas and Russia.
- 4.
For more information about the project: www.our-shurijo.org/en/.
- 5.
Between Taiwan’s Bureau of Cultural Heritage, non-profit organisation Cyark, dedicated to digitally recording, archiving and sharing cultural heritage worldwide, and Iron Mountain, a global company that provides storage and information management services.
- 6.
As of the first half of 2021, the foreign tourist arrivals to Bali decreased by 100% compared to the same period the year before. In mid-October 2021, Indonesia finally reopened Bali for fully vaccinated international tourists (Statista Research Department, 2021b).
- 7.
SCO Virtual Exhibition on Shared Buddhist Heritage: https://nmvirtual.in/.
- 8.
These eight countries are full members of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, a Eurasian political, economic and security alliance established in 2001.
- 9.
The exhibition includes 3D Buddhist artworks from India (National Museum New Delhi, Indian Museum in Kolkata), including the Gandhara and Mathura Schools, Nalanda, Amaravati and Sarnath. Objects depicting the life of Gautam Buddha from Karachi, Lahore, Taxila, Islamabad, Swat, and Peshawar museums in Pakistan, National Museum of Kazakhstan, National Historical Museum of the Kyrgyz Republic, National Museum and National Museum of Antiquities in Tajikistan, and archaeological sites of Uzbekistan, are also displayed. Objects from Moscow’s State Oriental Art Museum and China’s Dunhuang Academy are also included (Journals of India, 2020; The Hindu, 2020).
- 10.
ASEAN Cultural Heritage Digital Archive (ACHDA): https://heritage.asean.org/.
- 11.
ASEAN stands for Association of Southeast Asian Nations. Created in 1967 ASEAN aims to promote cooperation and facilitate integration among its members and other countries in Asia. ASEAN comprises ten members: Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, Philippines, Indonesia, Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Cambodia.
- 12.
In 2018, using the AMLAD technology, NTT DATA completed the digitisation of 3000 historical handwritten documents held by the Vatican Library. The technology has also been used by other cultural institutions, such as Japan’s National Diet Library and Koyasan University (NTT Data Corporation, 2020).
- 13.
Between South Korea’s Cultural Heritage Administration (CHA), the Seoul Metropolitan government, real estate and construction company Woomi Construction, and marketing company Cheil Worldwide.
- 14.
Between South Korea’s Cultural Heritage Administration (CHA) and Google Korea.
- 15.
For more information: https://www.nhb.gov.sg/nationalmuseum/our-exhibitions/exhibition-list/story-of-the-forest.
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Ocón, D. (2022). Digitalisation and Cultural Heritage Tourism in Asia: Stepping in Without Stepping Out. In: Borin, E., Cerquetti, M., Crispí, M., Urbano, J. (eds) Cultural Leadership in Transition Tourism. Contributions to Management Science. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-14121-8_9
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