Abstract
Syria has been marked by the birth and interaction of civilizations that changed the course of human history. With its cultural wealth and close links to neighboring peoples, Syria played an important part in the development of ancient Near Eastern civilizations, where fundamental knowledge and skills in writing, agriculture, and metallurgy were established. Religions, philosophies, the language of trade, systems of urban development, of diplomatic exchange – all these germinated within this geographical area. Today, Syria has more than 10,000 archaeological sites, scattered across the country’s cities, towns and villages, both inhabited and uninhabited areas. Tragically, the rich heritage of Syria has been seriously damaged by the armed conflict that begun in 2011. Today, open fighting is not yet fully over in the northwestern Idlib region, but over the last 9 years, shelling, looting and demolition have decimated archaeological sites and museum collections. Heritage destruction has been widely accounted for and disseminated as a consequence of war, but there are other, indirect reasons for its loss and damage, related to its pre-conflict management. This chapter provides a critique of these indirect reasons, examining a tranche of inadequacies and failings in pre-conflict heritage management frameworks and processes, before exploring the situation contemporaneous with the conflict. An examination of the relationship between local communities in Syria and the country’s heritage resources is presented in both parts, and provides an opportunity for crucial future engagement.
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Notes
- 1.
- 2.
Article 1 of the UNESCO Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural Heritage, 1972.
- 3.
The qobahs of Sheikh Hilal were built by farmers in the 1920s on Byzantine foundations, their thick walls and small windows making them comfortable across the seasons. Twelve were restored by local people using local materials – mud, straw, untreated wood and limewash.
- 4.
The analysis here is based on the author’s personal observations while working at the DGAM. As a student on placement at the directorate, the author participated in several archaeological missions as well as working with DGAM staff on exhibitions in the National Museum in Damascus (coinciding with Damascus becoming the Arabic Capital of Culture in 2008). During this period, the author also worked in the Directorate of Excavations as part of the administrative team.
- 5.
The collection and analysis of data on the limitations of the Syrian Law of Antiquities was carried out by the author as an observer of, and as an employee embedded in, the DGAM over a 6-year period.
- 6.
Article 1 of the Syrian Law of Antiquities No. 222.
- 7.
See, for example, the definitions in the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (UNESCO, 1972).
- 8.
See Article 19 of the Syrian Law of Antiquities No. 222.
- 9.
See Articles 18, 19, 20 and 21 of the Syrian Law of Antiquities No. 222.
- 10.
See Article 22 of the Syrian Law of Antiquities No. 222.
- 11.
See Article 23 of the Syrian Law of Antiquities No. 222.
- 12.
See Articles 20 and 22 of the Syrian Law of Antiquities No. 222.
- 13.
The author witnessed several conflicts between local people and employees of the DGAM, arising because people were not allowed to build close to the archaeological areas.
- 14.
All the data in this section was collected by the author through interviews with DGAM staff and direct observation.
- 15.
The Italian Agency for Development Cooperation, Lebanon and Syria, Beirut Office (n.d.).
- 16.
There were a few examples of positive relationships between archaeologists and local people, especially with long-term research programmes, where local workers became mediators between the two parties, and dialogue assisted the archaeologists in their interpretation of cultural material (see Gillot, 2010, p. 13).
- 17.
These articles are available on the website of the International Committee of the Red Cross, in their Customary International Humanitarian Law database (ICRC, 2005).
- 18.
For more information, see the Focus Raqqa Project, (n.d.).
- 19.
For more information, see Digitizing the Official Inventory of the Museum of Deir ez-Zor Project (Deir ez Zor Project, n.d.).
- 20.
The International Observatory of Syrian Cultural Heritage has been monitoring and assessing the situation of cultural heritage in Syria since the beginning of the conflict in March 2011. Its actions are part of the Emergency Safeguarding of the Syrian Cultural Heritage Project, launched in March 2014.
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Acknowledgments
I would like to express my deep and sincere gratitude to my colleague Dr. Emma Cunliffe from Newcastle University, her valuable comments and feedback were of immense help. I am very thankful to Dr. Juan Jose Ibanez, from the Spanish National Council and Dr. Gabriel Alcalde from Girona University for their advice. I would also like to express my deepest appreciation to all my DGAM colleagues who provided me with the needed information.
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Sabrine, I. (2022). The Management of Syrian Archaeological Heritage Before and During the Syrian Conflict: A Comparison Study. In: Badran, A., Abu-Khafajah, S., Elliott, S. (eds) Community Heritage in the Arab Region. One World Archaeology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-07446-2_10
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