Abstract
The issues pertaining to the legal protection of national minorities in North-Eastern Europe (in particular, in Poland, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia) are inextricably connected with the history of the region. They are also inherent in the political environment, especially in the context of bilateral relations between Poland and Lithuania, and between Russia and the Baltic States. Traumatic experiences, filled with the enormity of the injustices that the totalitarian regimes inflicted on those countries during the Second World War, resulted in major demographic changes. The restoration of independence in the 1990s and the revival of the national identity of Lithuanians, Latvians and Estonians were expressed in two main areas—citizenship regulations and language policy. Combining these tools was aimed at restoring the rightful position of the titular nations in the newly resurrected states. Political decisions made at that time have permanently defined the directions of the legal protection of national minorities in those territories.
This chapter provides an overview of the recent challenges in the field of the legal protection of national minorities in Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Poland. The focus is on the issues of minority protection in the context of Polish-Lithuanian and Russian-Baltic States relations and the current stage of inter-state dialogue on the matter. Without any doubt, domestic solutions for minority protection need to be proposed and discussed in the light of regional and international legal frameworks, including the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities of the Council of Europe. The chapter also examines other fundamental factors that impact the contemporary national minority protection systems in the region—politicisation and securitisation of ethnicity.
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Notes
- 1.
“Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world”, Preamble to the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 10 December 1948.
- 2.
With some simplification, it can be stated that present bilateral relations in the region are determined by two major historical records: attempts to create a Polish-Lithuanian federation by then Head of the Polish State Józef Piłsudski and the subsequent illegitimate creation of ‘Middle Lithuania’ (1920–39); and the Soviet occupation and annexation of the Baltic States (1940–1941, 1944–1991). For more information on the past language settings in Lithuania see Hogan-Brun et al. (2005), p. 346.
- 3.
For more information on the international approach see Varennes and Kuzborska (2018), pp. 123–134.
- 4.
Lithuania from September 10, 1991; Poland since June 25, 1973.
- 5.
In fact, Polish-Lithuanian relations go back to at least 1385 with the Union of Krewo. In 1569, after the Union of Lublin, Poland and Lithuania created a dual state, also known as the Commonwealth, ruled by a common monarch, one of the most populous and largest states of sixteenth and seventeenth century Europe. After the partition of the Commonwealth in 1795 among its neighbours—the Russian Empire, Austria and Prussia, both states vanished from world maps until the end of World War I. It should be noted, that during the period of common statehood, the Polish language and culture become dominant in institutions and the public sphere. Only the nineteenth century brought Lithuanian linguistic and cultural revival.
- 6.
The term ‘Russian-speaker’ is used here to describe or in some cases replace the term ethnic-Russian since some Slavic minorities (incl. Ukrainians, Poles, Belorussians) adopted Russian as their mother tongue. The term ‘Russian-speaking’ is also used in politics, legislation and news in the Baltic region.
- 7.
There were several unsuccessful attempts in this regard, including through a citizen’s initiative signed by 140,000 persons, but to no avail. According to the 2011 census (this is the last data available, because the next census will be conducted in 2021) 846,700 persons identified as Silesians, far more than for any of the recognized minorities in the country. Silesian community is frustrated about the fact that, despite five attempts over the past 12 years, neither the recognition of Silesians as an ethnic minority nor of Silesian as a regional language has been achieved.
- 8.
- 9.
Latvia’s population has decreased by 25% in 25 years—from 2.6 million to 1.9 million. This indicator is the highest in comparison to the other Baltic States—the population of Lithuania decreased from 3.6 to 2.8 million, Estonia from 1.5 to 1.3 million. Emigration concerns mainly people of working age. Between 2000 and 2015, the working-age population in Latvia decreased by 25%. For more about this, see OECD Reviews of Labour Market and Social Policies: Latvia (2016), p. 16.
- 10.
See Fourth Report submitted by Poland pursuant to Article 25, paragraph 2 of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities—received on 9 April 2019, ACFC/SR/IV(2019)001.
- 11.
Latvijas iedzīvotāju sadalījums pēc nacionālā sastāva un valstiskās piederības, datums=01.07.2020, https://www.pmlp.gov.lv/lv/media/271/download.
- 12.
Indicators characterising languages used by the population of Latvia, Central Statistical Bureau of Latvia (2017). https://www.csb.gov.lv/en/statistics/statistics-by-theme/population/characteristics/key-indicator/indicators-characterising-languages-used.
- 13.
The terms ‘Lithuanian’, ‘Estonian’, ‘Latvian’ have an eminently national and linguistic meaning. Under these circumstances, citizenship plays a secondary role—its acquisition is neither sufficient nor necessary for national identification. Such affiliation can only be warranted by learning a language, adopting a national culture, as well as being bound by marriage or blood ties with a representative of the titular nation. In this context, the state is seen as a tool to ensure the survival of the titular nation and protect its interests and well-being. This position is especially reflected in the legislation on citizenship and the protection of the state language. See mutatis mutandis Smooha (2001), p. 73.
- 14.
In its pure form, the core ethnic nation controls the state and uses it to further pursue its national interests and to award its members a favoured status. The non-core groups are granted individual and collective rights and allowed to struggle to initiate certain changes, but they are treated as second-class citizens and placed under control.
- 15.
See Letter of Max van der Stoel, OSCE High Commissioner for National Minorities to Mr. Trivimi Velliste Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Estonia, No. 206/93/L/Rev. The Hague, 6 April 1993; Opinion on the Law on Aliens of Estonia, Council of Europe, 1 July 1993; Council of Europe: Commissioner for Human Rights, Report by Mr. Alvaro Gil-Robles, Commissioner for Human Rights, on His Visit to Estonia, 27–30 October 2003, 12 February 2004, CommDH(2004)5; Consideration of Reports submitted by State Parties under Article 9 of the Convention, Concluding observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, CERD, sixty-third session, 4–22 August 2003, 10 December 2003, CERD/C/63/CO/7; Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance, Doudou Diène, Addendum, Mission to Latvia, No. A/HRC/7/19/Add.3.
- 16.
On the structure of autocratic regimes see Yiftachel and Ghanem (2004), p. 179.
- 17.
Even during the liberation movement of the late 1980s the ideas of saving and normalising each country’s national languages were of central importance. See Vihalemm and Hogan-Brun (2013), p. 59.
- 18.
In the most rigorous discourse, e.g. in prof. A. Nikžentaitis opinion, sometimes in Lithuania the state language is used as a mean of discrimination; see Nikžentaitis (2015).
- 19.
For example, in some cases conversation between the private sector employees that can be heard by third parties or private signs visible to others should take place and appear only in the state language.
- 20.
- 21.
For more references see Butkevičius (2011).
- 22.
For example, members of governing boards of NGOs are required to be proficient in the Latvian language at C1 level.
- 23.
- 24.
“Persons belonging to national minorities shall have adequate possibilities to use their language in communications with administrative authorities especially in regions and localities where they have expressed a desire for it and where they are present in significant numbers. Similarly, administrative authorities shall, wherever possible, ensure that public services are provided also in the language of the national minority. To this end, they shall adopt appropriate recruitment and/or training policies and programmes”. Oslo Recommendations regarding the Linguistic Rights of National Minorities, OSCE High Commissioner for Minority Rights, February 1998.
- 25.
- 26.
List of municipalities that use minority languages: Lista gmin wpisanych na podstawie art. 12 ustawy z dnia 6 stycznia 2005 r. o mniejszościach narodowych i etnicznych oraz o języku regionalnym (Dz. U. No 17, poz. 141, z późn. zm.) do Rejestru gmin, na których obszarze używane są nazwy w języku mniejszości.
- 27.
It was stated that the Lithuanian authorities should re-examine both the legal and factual situation regarding the use of the minority languages in the relations with the administrative authorities. See Council of Europe: Advisory Committee on the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. Second Opinion on Lithuania, adopted on 28 February 2008, ACFC/OP/II(2008)001.
- 28.
The Advisory Committee noted that the oral and written communication at the institution may in some cases de facto be conducted in a language understood by the applicant, however, it should be remembered that, as in the case of Latvia, there is a need for clear conditions and legal criteria regulating the right of persons belonging to national minorities to use their language in contacts with authorities. In the existing situation, due to the lack of specific provisions in this regard, receiving information in the minority mother language will depends on the goodwill of the civil servants involved.
- 29.
This possibility was foreseen in the Law on National Minorities, 1989, however, its provisions were never detailed in the secondary legislation, thus never effectively implemented.
- 30.
In the run-up to the referendum, Lithuanian politicians were doing all they could to mobilise citizens to go to the polls. It was feared that the turnout in the vote would be less than 50% and that it would be declared null and void (according to Art. 7 of the Law of the Republic of Lithuania on Referendum of 4 June 2002 Valstybės žinios, 2002, No. 64-2570). For more references see Kuzborska (2019), p. 183.
- 31.
Constitutional Court of the Republic of Lithuania (2006). Ruling of 10 May 2006 Official Gazette Valstybės žinios 2006, No 25/03.
- 32.
Constitutional Court of the Republic of Lithuania (2004). Ruling of 13 December 2004 Official Gazette Valstybės žinios 2004, No. 51/01-26/02-19/03-22/03-26/03-27/03.
- 33.
In a 2016 case, a court in Liepaja imposed a fine of 75€ on a homeowner for displaying a trilingual Latvian-English-Russian street sign, see Liepaja court judgment (2016). Ruling of 26 April 2016, case No. 120 0088 16/11.
- 34.
“The current approach of restricting the use of other languages is incompatible with the Framework Convention and considers moreover that it may be counterproductive. It wishes to reiterate that Article 10 of the Framework Convention does not foresee the use of minority languages – under specific circumstances – instead of the official language but in addition to it”. Council of Europe: Advisory Committee on the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. Third Opinion on Latvia adopted on 23 February 2018, ACFC/OP/III(2018)001REV, par. 121.
- 35.
Рассказать о вакцинации русскоязычным — проблема, сетует Минздрав, Rus.lsm.lv, 9 April 2021, available at: https://rus.lsm.lv/statja/analitika/analitika/rasskazat-o-vakcinacii-russkojazichnim%2D%2Dproblemasetuetminzdrav.a399839/?fbclid=IwAR0t4QaZYsb_DMf2qbWuFg59oey4yY87M4wxGXll39OH81xBq4EsDXeVc4.
- 36.
Attieksme pret vakcinēšanos, March 2021, available at: https://reitingi.factum.lv/covid/?fbclid=IwAR0H2y3VhQKQLGs64UuZVFMHVaLcWytnYbwdrQ9pMqBQhAy56ymvlww4Ek.
- 37.
LRT RADIJO trikalbė diskusija “Skiepai nuo COVID-19. Mitai ir faktai”, LRT.lt, 15 April 2021, available at: https://www.lrt.lt/naujienos/tavo-lrt/15/1388528/aktualu-lrt-radijo-trikalbe-diskusija-skiepai-nuo-covid-19-mitai-ir-faktai.
- 38.
See Memorandum of the Commissioner for Human Rights of Council of Europe to the Latvian Government. Assessment of the progress made in implementing the 2003 recommendations of the Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights, Strasbourg, 16 May 2007, No. CommDH(2007)9.
- 39.
For example, in September 2014, the State Language Centre banned the local government of the city of Reznekne, where the majority of residents are representatives of the Russian-speaking minority, from distributing a bilingual (Latvian-Russian) newsletter. The officials argued that bilingual written information should be provided by the authorities only in exceptional circumstances. In turn, in September 2015, the officials of the Centre imposed a fine on the museum, which used both the Latin and Cyrillic alphabets in the name of the exhibition. The mayor of Riga Mr Nils Ušakovs was fined 140 EUR for using the Russian language alongside Latvian on the Riga City Council’s Twitter account. Other examples of the Centre issuing prohibitions to provide information in languages other than Latvian (usually Russian, but also in English), include booklets about the adoption of the Euro in Latvia, reading aloud the names of stops in trams in Daugavpils, or information leaflets with invitations to women to undergo oncological examinations (see Резекне: инспекторы запретили распространять газету на русском, 22 September 2014, available at: http://rus.delfi.lv/news/daily/latvia/rezekne-inspektor-zapretili-rasprostranyat-municipalnuyu-gazetu-na-russkom.d?id=45001936; Council of Europe: Advisory Committee on the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. Third Opinion on Latvia adopted on 23 February 2018, ACFC/OP/III(2018)001REV, par. 122). See also Society, state officials see linguistic diversity dilemma differently, 14 September 2014, available at: http://www.lsm.lv; Minority Rights in Latvia: 2013–2014. FIDH Latvian Human Rights Committee, Submission for OSCE Human Dimension Implementation Meeting, 29 September 2014, Warsaw; Центр госязыка оштрафовал музей за название выставки “Мāксла”, 8 September 2015, available at: http://rus.delfi.lv/news/daily/latvia/centr-gosyazyka-oshtrafoval-muzej-za-nazvanie-vystavki-maksla.d?id=46432969.
- 40.
For example, in Hungary, when the percentage of representatives of national minorities in a given municipality is at least 10%, local government resolutions are also announced in the minority language. Printed materials, information coming from public institutions and state-owned enterprises, the names of the towns and streets are provided in the minority language. If the municipality provides media services, it should ensure the possibility of broadcasting, transmitting or printing programmes and articles in a minority language.
- 41.
See https://www.kriis.ee.
- 42.
For international standards in this regard see The Hague Recommendations Regarding the Education Rights of National Minorities and Explanatory Report (1996) OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities.
- 43.
- 44.
Zverenko N, Rytų Lietuvoje lietuvių kalbos egzamino rezultatai – apverktini: gelbėjo tik apeliacija, Delfi, 3 August 2017, available at: https://www.delfi.lt/news/daily/education/rytu-lietuvoje-lietuviu-kalbos-egzamino-rezultatai-apverktini-gelbejo-tik-apeliacija.d?id=75396319.
- 45.
Lucasas E, “Lietuvoje gera buti lenku”, Delfi, 21 February 2011, available at: http://www.delfi.lt/news/daily/lithuania/elucasas-lietuvoje-gera-buti-lenku.d?id=42248137.
- 46.
For more information on the 2011 amendments see Kuzborska (2014), pp. 68–81.
- 47.
Supreme Administrative Court of Lithuania, Ruling of 18 June 2013. ECRI recommended Lithuanian authorities “to take urgent measures, in consultation with all relevant stakeholders, to ensure that the lower number of accumulated Lithuanian language classes that non-Lithuanian mother tongue pupils benefited from during their schooling is fully taken into account when applying the unified language examination”, European Commission against Racism and Intolerance. Report on Lithuania, fifth monitoring cycle, adopted on 18 March 2016, published on 7 June 2016. Recommendation No. 82, par. 28.
- 48.
Kurklys M, “Increasing hours for the Lithuanian language in minority schools: why and how?”, 3 September 2018, International Centre for Ethnic and Linguistic Diversity Studies, available at: https://www.icelds.org/2018/09/03/increasing-hours-for-the-lithuanian-language-in-minority-schools-why-and-how/.
- 49.
Lietuvos Respublikos Švietimo įstatymo No. I-1489 30 straipsnio pakeitimo įstatymo projektas, No. XIIIP-2413, 24 July 2018. https://e-seimas.lrs.lt/portal/legalAct/lt/TAP/43d105008f4411e8aa33fe8f0fea665f?jfwid=-2icx9dtk4.
- 50.
Išvada dėl Lietuvos Respublikos Švietimo įstatymo No. I-1489 30 straipsnio pakeitimo įstatymo projekto, No. XIIIP-2413, 2018 August 21. https://e-seimas.lrs.lt/portal/legalAct/lt/TAK/4b3f4870a52d11e8aa33fe8f0fea665f?jfwid=-2icx9dtk4.
- 51.
Among them, 94 schools implement education programmes in Russian and bilingually.
- 52.
- 53.
The term ‘minority school’ refers to state/local government schools implementing minority education programmes.
- 54.
The Cabinet of Ministers amended its Regulations No. 1510 and 335.
- 55.
Latvian Law on Education, para. 30(4) and 48(5).
- 56.
Latvijas Republikas Satversmes tiesa, spriedums, Rīgā, 23 April 2019, No. 2018-12-01, p. 51; For the ruling’s evaluation from the perspective of Latvia’s international obligations see Dimitrovs (2019).
- 57.
‘Language immersion’ provides for teaching in Estonian at least 60% of the programme, starting from kindergarten or first grade. Its aim in relation to children is to reach fluency in the state language (i.e. raise it to the same level as the mother tongue). The Estonian system has developed two types of ‘language immersion’: ‘early immersion’ and ‘late immersion’.
- 58.
See further Estonia’s minister of education: the 60/40 system has failed, “Baltic Program”, article dated on 31 January 2015.
- 59.
Textbooks for teaching subjects in Estonian in minority schools are intended for teaching the same subjects in Estonian schools and are not adapted to the needs of non-native speakers.
- 60.
The Estonian Law on Primary and Secondary Education provides for a transition to teaching principally in Estonian during secondary education. It also includes exceptions concerning the continuation of teaching in a minority language after the year 2007. After 2007, consent to teaching in a minority language may be issued by the Government based on a proposal received from the local government council and taking into consideration the proposal of the school council. Nevertheless, the Law does not indicate any specific requirements necessary to obtain this type of consent. See further Council of Europe: Advisory Committee on the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. Third Opinion on Estonia adopted on 1 April 2011, ACFC/OP/III(2011)004, par. 33.
- 61.
In Estonia, the language of instruction for 60% of students in minority schools starting their education in 10th grade in 2011 or later is Estonian. Also in Latvia, as of the school year 2014/2015, 60% of subjects have to be taught in Latvian. The 2011 The Lithuanian Education Act provided for the state language to be the language of instruction for some subjects in minority schools.
- 62.
See Council of Europe: Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities and Explanatory Report, H(95)010, adopted on February 1995, Strasbourg, Par. 80. This requirement, which follows from Article 15 of the FCNM; Committee on the Rights of the Child: Human Rights Treaties Division, Plenary Session on Estonia, 21 November 2016.
- 63.
The pretext for the Russian-Ukrainian conflict and the annexation of Crimea in March 2014 was the argument used by the authorities of the Russian Federation for the “need to protect the Russian minority in Ukraine”.
- 64.
More on inspiring ideas regarding “the ideal law on multiculturalism” see Snarski (2020), pp. 179–195.
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Kuzborska-Pacha, E., Apolevič, J. (2022). Legal Protection of National Minorities in Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Poland: Current Issues. In: Limantė, A., Pūraitė-Andrikienė, D. (eds) Legal Protection of Vulnerable Groups in Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Poland. European Union and its Neighbours in a Globalized World, vol 8. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-06998-7_15
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