Abstract
In 2021, Angela Merkel stepped down after 16 years as German chancellor, marking the longest post-war tenure of a woman in a political leadership position in Europe. Having a powerful woman chancellor suggested to many observers that Germany is on an upward track to gender equality. However, the project of transforming a longstanding conservative gender regime is far from being complete. This chapter identifies three periods of German post-unification gender politics in which different challenges informed particular policies in the gender equality arena. Phase one is defined by East–West consolidation. In phase two, domestic and EU-level pressures align to create economic and social investment policies, and in phase three, Germany sees dual-track mobilizations for parity and equality. Throughout these three periods, ongoing legacies of unification inform strategic gender policy choices.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
- 1.
This particular gender gap will most likely appear to have increased during the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020/21.
- 2.
The AGG in fact implements four EU Directives: the 2000 Racial Equality Directive, the 2000 Employment Equality Directive, the 2002 Employment Gender Equality Directive, and the 2004 Gender Equality Directive for goods and services.
- 3.
Data from this section is drawn from Lang (2017).
- 4.
The so-called Ehegatten-Splitting (spousal income splitting) is still in effect in 2021, allowing spouses to combine taxable income and thus offering incentives for women to have little or no income. The tax break gets higher with the magnitude of the difference in income between spouses.
- 5.
The Joint Constitutional Assembly consisted of members of both chambers of the German legislative, Bundestag and Bundesrat.
- 6.
Gesetz zur Änderung des Grundgesetzes 1994, BGBL I 3146. Artikel 3 (1) Alle Menschen sind vor dem Gesetz gleich. (2) Männer und Frauen sind gleichberechtigt. Der Staat fördert die tatsächliche Durchsetzung der Gleichberechtigung von Frauen und Männern und wirkt auf die Beseitigung bestehender Nachteile hin.
- 7.
With the European Council meeting in Barcelona in 2002 and the passing of the Barcelona Objectives in 2003, the EU affirmed the necessity of member states providing accessible and affordable high-quality childcare to enable “women, and men, with caring responsibilities, to participate in the labour market” (European Commission, 2018, p. 1).
- 8.
This goal was ambitious and was not reached in 2013. The so-called care quota for children under 3 years crossed the 35 per cent threshold only in 2020 (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2020).
- 9.
The law was overturned by the Federal Constitutional Court in 2015.
- 10.
Gesetz für die gleichberechtigte Teilhabe von Frauen und Männern an Führungspositionen.
- 11.
Gesetz zur Förderung der Transparenz von Entgeltstrukturen.
- 12.
Gesetz zur Weiterentwicklung des Teilzeitrechts—Einführung einer Brückenteilzeit.
- 13.
See Swaantje M. & Manon P. (2020, October). Weil wir es können und weil wir es wollen. FAZ. Access at https://www.faz.net/aktuell/stil/trends-nischen/prominente-in-ichwill-kamapagne-fuer-mehr-teilhabe-von-frauen-17004681.html.
- 14.
Literature
Abels, G., & Cress, A. (2019). Vom Kampf ums Frauenwahlrecht zur Parité: Politische Repräsentation von Frauen Gestern und Heute. Zeitschrift Für Parlamentsfragen, 50
Ahrens, P., Ayoub, P., & Lang, S. (2022). Leading from behind. Angela Merkel’s transformation in regard to gender politics. German Politics, 31(1), 1–19.
Ahrens, P., Chmilewski, K., Lang, S., & Sauer, B. (2020). Gender equality in politics: Implementing party quotas in Germany and Austria. Springer.
Ahrens, P., & Lang, S. (2022). Angela Merkel and the CDU quota curse.German Politics, 31(1), 40–58.
Ahrens, P. & Scheele, A. (2022). Game-changers for Gender Equality on Germany’s Labour Market? Corporate Board Quotas, Pay Transparency and Temporary Part-Time Work. German Politics, 31(1), 157–176.
Bauer, U., & Dähner, S. (2010). Das volle Leben! Frauenkarrieren in Ostdeutschland. Frauen Machen Neue Länder. Retrieved from https://www.frauenmachenneuelaender.de/documents/5728034/5974486/fmnl_studie_lang2010.pdf/05920b0f-4bf6-429d-a759-096f4af1f651
BMFSFJ—Bundesministerium für Familie, Senioren, Frauen und Jugend. (2020). 4. Atlas zur Gleichstellung von Frauen und Männern in Deutschland. Access at https://www.bmfsfj.de/blob/160308/73cf50519fdd0b72be8bce59a041079b/4--atlas-zur-gleichstellung-von-frauen-und-maennern-in-deutschland-broschuere-data.pdf
Botsch, E. (2015). The policy on gender equality in Germany. European Parliament. Retrieved from https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2015/510025/IPOL_IDA(2015)510025_EN.pdf
Briscoe, A. (2021, January 11). Germany drafts law introducing quota for women on executive boards. Jurist. Retrieved from https://www.jurist.org/news/2021/01/germany-moves-towards-quota-for-women-company-boards/
Clemens, C. (2009). Modernisation or disorientation? Policy change in Merkel’s CDU. German Politics, 18(2), 121–139. https://doi.org/10.1080/09644000902870859
Davidson-Schmich, L. K. (2016). Gender quotas and democratic participation: Recruiting candidates for elective offices in Germany. University of Michigan Press.
Der Spiegel. (2021, February 12). Frauenfeindlichkeit im Bundestag durch AfD gestiegen. Spiegel Politik. Access at https://www.spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/bundestag-frauenfeindlichkeit-durch-afd-gestiegen-a-4c8c425c-6b08-4ac5-b049-61ad65d1240c
Dölling, I. (1991). Between hope and helplessness: Women in the GDR after the “turning point.” Feminist Review, 39(1), 3–15. https://doi.org/10.1057/fr.1991.36
EAF – Europäische Akademie für Frauen. (2020). Gesetzesinitiativen in den Bundesländern. Frauen Macht Politik. Retrieved from https://www.frauen-macht-politik.de/gesetzesinitiativen-in-den-bundeslaendern/
European Institute for Gender Equality. (2019). Gender Equality Index 2019: Germany. Access at https://eige.europa.eu/publications/gender-equality-index-2019-germany
European Commission. (2013). Barcelona Objectives: The development of childcare facilities for young children in Europe with a view to sustainable and inclusive growth. Publications Office of the European Union. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/130531_barcelona_en_0.pdf
European Commission. (2018). Barcelona Objectives on the development of childcare facilities for young children with a view to increase female labour participation, strike a work-life balance for working parents and bring about sustainable and inclusive growth in Europe (the “Barcelona objectives”). European Union. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/bcn_objectives-report2018_web_en.pdf
Ferree, M. M. (1996). Sociological perspectives on gender in Germany. Women in German Yearbook, 12, 27–38.
Ferree, M. M. (2012). Varieties of feminism: German gender politics in global perspective. Stanford University Press.
Galaktionow, B. (2014, November 10). Kinderkrippen vor und nach dem Mauerfall. Vom Schreckensbild zum Zukunftsmodell. Süddeutsche Zeitung. Retrieved from http://www.sueddeutsche.de/politik/kinderkrippen-vor-und-nach-dem-mauerfall-vom-schreckensbild-zum-zukunftsmodell-1.2213149
Gerhard, U. (1991). Einleitung. Feministische Studien, 9(s1), 3–6. https://doi.org/10.1515/fs-1991-s102
Henninger, A., & von Wahl, A. (2014). Grand coalition and multi-party competition: Explaining slowing reforms in gender policy in Germany (2009–2013). German Politics, 23(4), 386–399. https://doi.org/10.1080/09644008.2014.984695
Henninger, A., & von Wahl, A. (2018). This train has left the station: The German gender equality regime on Course towards a social democratic model (2013–2017). German Politics, 28(3), 462–481. https://doi.org/10.1080/09644008.2018.1551484
Hobler, D., Pfahl, S., & Schubert, L. (2020). Minijobs als einzige Erwerbstätigkeit 2004—2019. WSI Gender Daten Portal. Access at https://www.wsi.de/data/wsi_gdp_2020-09-14_EA-Verhältnis-03
Kohlrausch, B., & Zucco, A. (2020, November 24). Was bedeutet die Corona Pandemie für die Gleichstellung zwischen Mann und Frau? WSI Blog-Serie zu den Folgen der Pandemie. Access at https://www.wsi.de/de/blog-17857-was-bedeutet-die-corona-pandemie-fur-die-gleichstellung-zwischen-mann-und-frau-28569.htm
Lang, S. (2017). Gender equality in post-unification Germany: Between GDR legacies and EU-Level pressures. German Politics, 26(4), 556–573. https://doi.org/10.1080/09644008.2017.1365842
Lang, S. (2018). Gender quotas in Germany: Diffusion, derailment, and the quest for parity democracy. In E. Lépinard & R. M. Rubio (Eds.), Transforming gender citizenship: The irresistible rise of gender quotas in Europe (pp. 279–307). Cambridge University Press.
Lang, S., & Ahrens, P. (2020). Paritätsgesetz oder Wahlrechtsreform? Warum Deutschland beides braucht. In S. Berghahn & U. Schultz (Eds.), Rechtshandbuch für Frauen- und Gleichstellungsbeauftragte. Dashöfer.
Limbach, J. (1993). Frauenrechte im Grundgesetz des geeinten Deutschland. In M. Eckertz-Höfer, (Ed.), Nomos.
MacRae, H. (2006). Rescaling gender relations: The influence of European directives on the German gender regime. Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society, 13(4), 522–550. https://doi.org/10.1093/sp/jxl009
Mantl, E. (2012). Modernisiertes Ernährermodell: Teilzeit für die Frau, Vollzeit für den Mann. Zukunftsfähiger Trend für eine gelingende Vereinbarkeit von Beruf und Familie? Kompetenzebüro für Familie, Demografie und Gleichstellung. Access at https://www.elisabeth-mantl.de/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/Teilzeit_Fakten_und_Zahlen.pdf
Mushaben, J. M. (2017). Becoming madam chancellor: Angela Merkel and the Berlin republic. Cambridge University Press.
Och, M. (2018). Conservative feminists? An exploration of feminist arguments in parliamentary debates of the bundestag1. Parliamentary Affairs, 72(2), 353–378. https://doi.org/10.1093/pa/gsy016
Ostner, I., Reif M., Schmitt, C., & Turba H. (2003). Family policies in Germany. Access at https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.632.3350&rep=rep1&type=pdf
Sharma, M. R., & Steiner, M. (2008). Dossier: Ausweitung der Kinderbetreuung – Kosten, Nutzen, Foinanzierung. BMFSFJ. Access at https://www.bmfsfj.de/blob/93556/e71785b2ad4b70362cb956de7011ae88/dossier-ausbau-der-kinderbetreuung-data.pdf
Statistisches Bundesamt. (2020). Betreuungsquote der unter 3-jährigen Kinder auf 35,0% gestiegen. Access at https://www.destatis.de/DE/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/2020/09/PD20_380_225.html;jsessionid=25D0494733EB9F08581A21859206FF45.internet741
Unification Treaty (August 31, 1990). BHDI. Retrieved from http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/docpage.cfm?docpage_id=550
von Wahl, A. (2019). From object to subject: Intersex activism and the rise and fall of the gender binary in Germany. Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society. https://doi.org/10.1093/sp/jxz044
World Economic Forum. (2020). Global gender gap report 2020. Retrieved from http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2020.pdf
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Lang, S. (2022). The Reluctant Modernizer: Gender Equality in Unified Germany. In: Oswald, M., Robertson, J. (eds) The Legacy and Impact of German Unification. New Perspectives in German Political Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97154-0_9
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97154-0_9
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-97153-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-97154-0
eBook Packages: Political Science and International StudiesPolitical Science and International Studies (R0)