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Energy Transition and the Role of Women: Advancing Gender-Aware Transition in the Natural Gas Industry

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Abstract

This chapter discusses the need to integrate gender considerations into the design and implementation of energy transition programmes and policies in the oil and gas industry. Drawing lessons from Nigeria, it examines the link between poor participation of women in decision-making in the natural gas industry and the slow attainment of energy transition goals. It discusses the legal obligation to enhance access to cleaner sources of energy for women in tandem with the fundamental human rights of women that are enshrined in the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (CFRN), 1999 (as amended), and the International Bill of Rights.

This chapter finds that respect for human rights is a safe, equitable and globally recognized strategy for energy transition; and that realizing the rights of women to participate adequately in decision-making in the oil and gas industry in Nigeria has the potential of ameliorating the effects of energy poverty and the other consequences of climate change.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Khan (2012) notes that climate change is responsible for unprecedented floods and global warming and that in “2003, 35,000 persons died of heat wave in some areas in Europe. Droughts in Africa is getting worse and summer is hotter than it was in previous years. Hurricanes and typhoons are larger stronger and more frequent.”

  2. 2.

    See Olawuyi (2018a), pp. 354–370.

  3. 3.

    Gro Harlem Brundtland Commission (1987).

  4. 4.

    UNFCCC (1994) Resolution.

  5. 5.

    UNFCCC (1997) Kyoto Protocol.

  6. 6.

    Olawuyi (2022), pp. 1–10.

  7. 7.

    World Economic Forum (2020); Olawuyi (2021a).

  8. 8.

    Maohanty (2018), noting that India, in response to climate change, had adopted a policy which bans the sale of fuel-powered vehicles from 2030.

  9. 9.

    BBC News (2020).

  10. 10.

    George (2020).

  11. 11.

    Olawuyi (2018b), pp. 73–104.

  12. 12.

    Parikh and Sharma (2014).

  13. 13.

    Ki-moon (2011), p. 2.

  14. 14.

    International Energy Agency (IEA) (2010), p. 13, noting that “the poorest households tend to use three-stone fires for cooking. The high moisture content of the biomass resources used and the low efficiency of the combustion process produce dangerous levels of smoke, particularly if food is cooked indoors.”

  15. 15.

    Parikh and Sharma (2014).

  16. 16.

    International Energy Agency (IEA) (2010), p. 7, states that “there are 1.4 billion people around the world that lack access to electricity, some 85% of them in rural areas. Without additional dedicated policies, by 2030 the number of people drops, but only to 1.2 billion. Some 15% of the world’s population still lack access, the majority of them living in Sub-Saharan Africa.” See also Olawuyi (2018b).

  17. 17.

    Karlsson (ed) (2001), p. 9.

  18. 18.

    Karlsson (ed) (2001).

  19. 19.

    Karlsson (ed) (2001), noting that “women are fully occupied by their daily survival tasks and have little time or means to take on additional income-earning activities that could move them and their children out of poverty, or to work on other sorts of community development projects.” See also Olawuyi (2015).

  20. 20.

    Anyawu (2020), listing the members of the board of Directors of the NNPC as follows: the Hon. Minister of State for Petroleum Resources, Timipre Sylva who doubles as the Alternate Chairman of the Board, Mallam Mele Kolo Kyari, GMD of NNPC, Senator Magnus Abe, Dr Isah Dutse, Permanent Secretary Ministry of Finance, Dr Tajudeen Umaru, Dr Steven Dike, Mrs Lami Ahmed, Chief Pius Akinyelure, Malam Mohammed Lawal and Secretary of the Board, Mrs Hadiza Commassie. Only two out of ten members are women.

  21. 21.

    UN General Assembly (1948) Universal Declaration of Human Rights; UN General Assembly (1966a) International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, p. 171; UN General Assembly (1966b) International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, p. 3.

  22. 22.

    UN General Assembly (1979) Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, p. 13.

  23. 23.

    Organization of African Unity (OAU) (1981) African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights. Banjul Charter.

  24. 24.

    UN General Assembly (1948) Universal Declaration on Human and Peoples Rights, p. 71.

  25. 25.

    UN ICCPR.

  26. 26.

    UN ICESCR (entered into force January 3, 1976).

  27. 27.

    UN General Assembly (1979), Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.

  28. 28.

    CEDAW, articles 2 (a) and (b).

  29. 29.

    African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (Ratification and Enforcement) [ACHPR (R&E)] Act, 1983, Cap A9 Laws of the Federation of Nigeria, 2011, made pursuant to the African Charter and in fulfilment of the requirement of section 12 of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (CFRN). In Abacha v. Fawehinmi (2000) NWLR (pt. 660), where the Supreme Court held that the ACHPR (R&E) Act, 1983, was enforceable.

  30. 30.

    Government of Nigeria (2014) Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (CFRN), s. 14 (3), which provides that the composition of the government of the Federation shall be in such a manner as to reflect the diversity in Nigeria and in such a manner as to promote national loyalty; ACHPR (R&A), article 13 (1) and (2) which also guarantees participation in governance by all citizens.

  31. 31.

    ACHPR (R&E), article 15.

  32. 32.

    Africanews (2021).

  33. 33.

    African Union (2003) Maputo Protocol.

  34. 34.

    African Union (2003) Maputo Protocol, article 2(1).

  35. 35.

    African Union (2003) Maputo Protocol, article 2(1)(c).

  36. 36.

    African Union (2003) Maputo Protocol, article 9(1) and (2).

  37. 37.

    African Union (2003) Maputo Protocol, article 13(h).

  38. 38.

    Government of Nigeria (2014) Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (CFRN), s. 12.

  39. 39.

    Abacha v. Fawehinmi (2000), p. 228.

  40. 40.

    Abacha v. Fawehinmi (2000).

  41. 41.

    Abacha v. Fawehinmi (2000), n. 24.

  42. 42.

    Government of Nigeria (2014) Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (CFRN), s. 42.

  43. 43.

    No. 18 of 2019, Ekiti State of Nigeria.

  44. 44.

    See Olawuyi and Olaniyan (2021), pp. 167–187.

  45. 45.

    See Olawuyi (2015).

  46. 46.

    See Olawuyi (2015).

  47. 47.

    Government of Nigeria (2014) Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (CFRN), s. 33.

  48. 48.

    Government of Nigeria (2014) Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (CFRN), s. 34.

  49. 49.

    Government of Nigeria (2014) Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (CFRN), s. 35.

  50. 50.

    Government of Nigeria (2014) Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (CFRN), s. 36.

  51. 51.

    Government of Nigeria (2014) Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (CFRN), s. 37.

  52. 52.

    Government of Nigeria (2014) Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (CFRN), s. 42 (1)(a) & (b).

  53. 53.

    Government of Nigeria (2014) Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (CFRN).

  54. 54.

    Mojekwu v Mojekwu (1997), p. 283.

  55. 55.

    Mojekwu v Ejikeme (2001), where the appellant argued that they had the right to inherit the property of Reuben Mojekwu simply because he had no male child. In other words, they argued that the surviving female children were not competent under native custom to inherit their father’s property. The High Court struck down the custom and the Court of Appeal upheld the judgement of the High Court.

  56. 56.

    Mojekwu v Ejikeme (2001).

  57. 57.

    (2014) LPELR- 22724 (SC).

  58. 58.

    Government of Nigeria (2014) Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (CFRN), s. 6(6)(c).

  59. 59.

    Archbishop Olubunmi Okogie v. Attorney-General of Lagos State (1981) 2 NCLR 625; see also AG Ondo v AG of the Federation (2002) 9 NWLR (Pt 772) 222, where the Supreme Court maintained the view that if legislature intends to enforce any part of chapter II of the CFRN, it reserved the prerogative of doing so by enacting a law to that effect.

  60. 60.

    Kutigi (2017).

  61. 61.

    Government of Nigeria (2014) Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (CFRN), s. 17(3)(a).

  62. 62.

    Olawuyi and Olaniyan (2021), 167–187.

  63. 63.

    Petroleum Act of 1969, Cap P10 LFN 2004.

  64. 64.

    On 16 August 2021 the President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria signed the Petroleum Industry Act (PIA) 2021 into Law. See Petroleum Industry Act (PIA) 2021, see also Petroleum Act of 1969, Cap P10 LFN 2004.

  65. 65.

    Petroleum Act of 1969, Cap P10 LFN 2004, s. 4(1).

  66. 66.

    Petroleum Act of 1969, Cap P10 LFN 2004, s. 2 (1).

  67. 67.

    NNPC v. Famfa Oil Ltd (2012) 17 NWLR (pt 1328) 148, noting that the regulation made by the minister must be in accordance with the Petroleum Act. See also FGN v. Zebra Energy Ltd. (2002) 18 NWLR (pt. 798) 162; Ogunlaji v. A.G Rivers State (1997) 6 NWLR (pt. 508) 209; UNTHMB v. Nnoli (1994) 5 NWLR (pt. 36) 376.

  68. 68.

    Petroleum Act of 1969, Cap P10 LFN 2004, s. 6.

  69. 69.

    Petroleum Act of 1969, Cap P10 LFN 2004, s. 9.

  70. 70.

    Olawuyi (2021b); also Olawuyi and Olaniyan (2021).

  71. 71.

    Olawuyi (2021); also Olawuyi and Olaniyan (2021).

  72. 72.

    Government of Nigeria (2014) Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (CFRN), s. 88(2)(a) and (b).

  73. 73.

    Okoeguale (2019), pp. 35, 41.

  74. 74.

    National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency (Establishment) Act (2006) (as amended), s. 1(1).

  75. 75.

    National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency (Establishment) Act (2006) (as amended), s. 5

  76. 76.

    National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency (Establishment) Act (2006) (as amended), s. 5(1)(a).

  77. 77.

    National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency (Establishment) Act (2006) (as amended), s. 2(2); NOSDRA (n.d.).

  78. 78.

    Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) Act (2011), s. 1.

  79. 79.

    Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) Act (2011), s. 5.

  80. 80.

    Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) Act (2011), s. 6.

  81. 81.

    Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) Act (2011), s. 1(3).

  82. 82.

    Anyawu (2020), listing the members of the board as follows: the Hon. Minister of State for Petroleum Resources, Timipre Sylva who doubles as the Alternate Chairman of the Board, Mallam Mele Kolo Kyari, GMD of NNPC, Senator Magnus Abe, Dr Isah Dutse, Permanent Secretary Ministry of Finance, Dr Tajudeen Umaru, Dr Steven Dike, Mrs Lami Ahmed, Chief Pius Akinyelure, Malam Mohammed Lawal and Secretary of the Board, Mrs Hadiza Commassie.

  83. 83.

    Anyawu (2020).

  84. 84.

    Olawuyi & Olaniyan (2021).

  85. 85.

    Nigerian Oil and Gas Industry Content Development (NOGICD) Act (2011), s. 3(1).

  86. 86.

    Nigerian Oil and Gas Industry Content Development (NOGICD) Act (2011), s. 70.

  87. 87.

    Nigerian Oil and Gas Industry Content Development (NOGICD) Act (2011), s. 71.

  88. 88.

    Nigerian Oil and Gas Industry Content Development (NOGICD) Act (2011), s. 73(1).

  89. 89.

    Nigerian Oil and Gas Industry Content Development (NOGICD) Act (2011), s. 73(2).

  90. 90.

    Olawuyi and Olaniyan (2021).

  91. 91.

    Olawuyi (2016), pp. 1–25; see also Olawuyi (2021).

  92. 92.

    Nairametrics (2020), noting that the price of kerosene had increased to N347 per litre, whereas fuel sells at N162 per litre.

  93. 93.

    Ebohon (1996), pp. 447–453, noting that the “study investigated the causality between energy consumption and economic growth for Tanzania and Nigeria. The study found a bilateral causality between energy consumption and economic growth.”

  94. 94.

    Olawuyi (2021); also Ki-moon (2011), stating that smoke and fumes inhaled from the combustion of biomass and firewood kill about two million people a year.

  95. 95.

    See Chap. 2 of this book.

  96. 96.

    Nairametrics (2020).

  97. 97.

    United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2004), p. 10, stating that provisions of energy that is thought to be gender-blind turned out to be favourable to men more than women.

  98. 98.

    Clancy and Feenstra (2006), p. 7.

  99. 99.

    Olawuyi (2021b).

  100. 100.

    United Nations General Assembly (2015) Transforming Our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development Resolution; also underscoring the commitment to “double the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency by 2030.”

  101. 101.

    Communications No. 272/03, Association of Victims of Post Electoral Violence & Interights v. Cameroon, para 119; Communications No. 245 (2002), Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum v. Zimbabwe, para 171; Barigha-Amange v. Adumein (2016) 13 NWLR (pt. 1530) 349 at 385.

  102. 102.

    Karlsson (2001), p. 9; Olawuyi (2015).

  103. 103.

    Karlsson (2001) noting that the time spent in gathering firewood for cooking and heating reduces the opportunities for engaging in income-producing and community activities and from improving their levels of education which should normally increase their capacities to participate at the top echelon of dynamic industries like the oil and gas industry.

  104. 104.

    Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum v. Zimbabwe.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. College of Law, Afe Babalola University, Ado Ekiti, Nigeria

    Elisabeta Smaranda Olarinde

  2. Law Clinic, College of Law, Afe Babalola University (ABUAD), Ado Ekiti, Nigeria

    Hilary Okoeguale

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    Eduardo G. Pereira

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Olarinde, E.S., Okoeguale, H. (2022). Energy Transition and the Role of Women: Advancing Gender-Aware Transition in the Natural Gas Industry. In: Olawuyi, D.S., Pereira, E.G. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of Natural Gas and Global Energy Transitions. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-91566-7_22

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