Abstract
The Pregnancy Experience Scale (PES) was developed to fill a gap in the US-based research literature on women’s affective response to pregnancy by assessing the degree to which women felt happy and uplifted by pregnancy, countering the prevailing emphasis on pregnancy as a source of stress and strain. The PES includes 41 pregnancy-specific items rated both as sources of uplifts and hassles scored along frequency and intensity dimensions. The subsequent PES-Brief is based on 20 of these items rated as either an uplift or a hassle. Over time, these scales have been adopted by the international research community. In this chapter, we present 17 translations and supporting data on their implementation in international settings. Psychometric analyses, when available, indicate the maintenance of internal reliability, test-retest reliability, and factor cohesion across translations. All studies reported that the PES and/or PES-Brief were suitable for use with pregnant women in the target locale. Cultural adaptations are described. Overall maternal affective valence toward pregnancy, represented by the ratios between hassles and uplifts, is presented for studies conducted in English-speaking countries, and in those using translated versions, ratio scores were below 1.0 (i.e., uplifts were reported more frequently and intensely than hassles) in 24 of 25 studies spanning 14 countries with diverse cultural and socioeconomic circumstances. These data indicate that, on balance, women regard pregnancy as substantially more uplifting than distressing. The use of these scales can shift the research focus toward factors that contribute to positive appraisals of pregnancy and in doing can promote maternal well-being during pregnancy and beyond.
Development of the PES and PES-Brief was supported by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) award 5R01 HD27592. We thank the dedication and generosity of our study families without whom this work would not have been possible. We are grateful for the assistance of our international colleagues who graciously provided their translations along with information on cross-cultural adaptations. Special thanks to Sarah Gerges, Mari Ikeda, and Miriam Salama for additional translation assistance.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abazoriūtė, K. (2018). Body image in pregnancy and its relations to psychological well-being and pregnancy acceptance. Master’s thesis, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences. https://www.gs.elaba.lt
Abdi, F., Navidpour, F., & Dolatian, M. (2018). A literature review of pregnancy worries and stress scales. Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 12(3), e14581. https://doi.org/10.5812/ijpbs.14581
Alderdice, F., Lynn, F., & Lobel, M. (2012). A review and psychometric evaluation of pregnancy-specific stress measures. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 33(2), 62–77. https://doi.org/10.3109/0167482X.2012.673040
Bann, C. M., Parker, C. B., Grobman, W. A., Willinger, M., Simhan, H. N., Wing, D. A., Haas, D. M., Silver, R. M., Parry, S., Saade, G. R., Wapner, R. J., Elovitz, M. A., Miller, E. S., Reddy, U. M., & NuMoM2b study. (2017). Psychometric properties of stress and anxiety measures among nulliparous women. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 38(1), 53–62. https://doi.org/10.1080/0167482X.2016.1252910
Baumgartner, T., Bhamidipalli, S. S., Guise, D., Daggy, J., Parker, C. B., Westermann, M., Parry, S., Grobman, W. A., Mercer, B. M., Simhan, H. N., Silver, R. M., Wapner, R. J., Saade, G. R., Reddy, U. M., Haas, D. M., & nu MoM2b study. (2020). Psychosocial and sociodemographic contributors to breastfeeding intention in first-time mothers. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 24(8), 1047–1056. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-020-02928-0
Beijers, R., Jansen, J., Riksen-Walraven, M., & de Weerth, C. (2010). Maternal prenatal anxiety and stress predict infant illnesses and health complaints. Pediatrics, 126(2), e401–e409. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-3226
Brantley, P. J., Waggoner, C. D., Jones, G. N., & Rappaport, N. B. (1987). A daily stress inventory: Development, reliability, and validity. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 10(1), 61–74. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00845128
Cristofalo, E. A., Dipietro, J. A., Costigan, K. A., Nelson, P., & Crino, J. (2006). Women’s response to fetal choroid plexus cysts detected by prenatal ultrasound. Journal of Perinatology, 26(4), 215–223. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.jp.7211489
DeLongis, A., Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1988). The impact of daily stress on health and mood: Psychological and social resources as mediators. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 486–495. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.54.3.486
Dere, S. S., Varotariya, J. K., Ghildiyal, R. P., Sharma, S. A., & Kaur, D. M. S. (2019). Antenatal preparedness for motherhood and its association with antenatal anxiety and depression in first time pregnant women from India. Industrial Psychiatry Journal, 28(2), 255–261. https://doi.org/10.4103/ipj.ipj_66_19
Diener, E., Larsen, R. J., Levine, S., & Emmons, R. A. (1985). Intensity and frequency: Dimensions underlying positive and negative affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48(5), 1253–1265. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.48.5.1253
DiPietro, J. A., Hodgson, D. M., Costigan, K. A., & Hilton, S. C. (1996). Fetal neurobehavioral development. Child Development, 67(5), 2553–2567. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01874.x
DiPietro, J. A., Millet, S., Costigan, K. A., Gurewitsch, E., & Caulfield, L. E. (2003). Psychosocial influences on weight gain attitudes and behaviors during pregnancy. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 103(10), 1314–1319. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0002-8223(03)01070-8
DiPietro, J. A., Ghera, M. M., Costigan, K. A., & Hawkins, M. (2004). Measuring the ups and downs of pregnancy stress. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 25(3–4), 189–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/01674820400017830
DiPietro, J. A., Christensen, A., & Costigan, K. A. (2008). The pregnancy experience scale – Brief version. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 29(4), 262–267. https://doi.org/10.1080/01674820802546220
DiPietro, J. A., Costigan, K. A., & Voegtline, K. M. (2015a). Studies in fetal behavior: Revisited, renewed, and reimagined. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 80(3), 1–151. https://doi.org/10.1111/mono.v80.3
DiPietro, J. A., Goldshore, M. A., Kivlighan, K. T., Pater, H. A., & Costigan, K. A. (2015b). The ups and downs of early mothering. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 36(3), 94–102. https://doi.org/10.3109/0167482X.2015.1034269
DiPietro, J. A., Kivlighan, K. T., Voegtline, K. M., Costigan, K. A., & Moore, G. A. (2021). It takes two: An antenatal to postnatal RDoC framework for investigating the origins of maternal attachment and mother-infant social communication. Development and Psychopathology, 33(5), 1539–1553. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579421000997
Doaltabadi, Z., Amiri-Farahani, L., Hasanpoor-Azghady, S. B., & Haghani, S. (2021). The effect of face-to-face and virtual prenatal care training of spouses on the pregnancy experience and fear of childbirth of primiparous women: A controlled quasi-experimental study. Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare. https://doi.org/10.1177/1357633X211024101
Downe, S., Finlayson, K., Tunçalp, Ӧ., & Metin Gülmezoglu, A. (2016). What matters to women: A systematic scoping review to identify the processes and outcomes of antenatal care provision that are important to healthy pregnant women. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 123(4), 529–539. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-0528.13819
Ebadi, A., Karamian, N., & Hajifoghaha, M. (2017). Psychometric properties and validation of the Persian translation of the pregnancy experience scale – Brief version (PES). Journal of Rafsanjan University Medical School, 15(9), 809–820. (in Farsi).
Egan, A. M., Dunne, F. P., Lydon, K., Conneely, S., Sarma, K., & McGuire, B. E. (2017). Diabetes in pregnancy: Worse medical outcomes in type 1 diabetes but worse psychological outcomes in gestational diabetes. QJM, 110(11), 721–727. https://doi.org/10.1093/qjmed/hcx106
Esmeray, N., Yanıkkerem, E., & Baydur, H. (2017). Gebelik Deneyimleri Ölçeği’nin Türkçe Geçerlilik Güvenilirlik Çalışması. Ege Üniversitesi Hemşirelik Fakültesi Dergisi, 33, 68–87. (English abstract).
Faramarzi, M., Amiri, F. N., & Rezaee, R. (2016). Relationship of coping ways and anxiety with pregnancy specific-stress. Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences, 32(6), 1364–1369. https://doi.org/10.12669/pjms.326.10892
Ferreira, L., Marini, G., Amaral, A. L., dos Santos, T. C., & de Conti, M. H. S. (2020). Translation, cultural adaptation and validation of “Pregnancy Experience Scale” for Brazilian pregnant. Fisioterapia em Movimento, 33, e003301. https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-5918.033.AO01
Gerges, S., Obeid, S., & Hallit, S. (2022). Associations between eating attitudes, mental health, and sexual dysfunction during pregnancy. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2022.2149937
Gerges, S., DiPietro, J.A., Obeid, S., Fekih-Romdhane, F, Hallit, S. (2023a). Psychometric performance assessment of the Arabic version of the Pregnancy Experience Scale-Brief version (PES-Brief) in an Arabic-speaking pregnant women population. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 174, 111499. https://doi.org/10.1016/jpsychores.2023.111499
Gerges, S., Obeid, S., & Hallit, S. (2023b). Traversing mental health disorders during pregnancy: Lebanese women’s experiences of antepartum depression and anxiety. Irish Journal of Medical Science, 20, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11845-023-03371-0
Girchenko, P., Lahti, M., Tuovinen, S., Savolainen, K., Lahti, J., Binder, E. B., Reynolds, R. M., Entringer, S., Buss, C., Wadhwa, P. D., Hämäläinen, E., Kajantie, E., Pesonen, A. K., Villa, P. M., Laivuori, H., & Räikkönen, K. (2017). Cohort profile: Prediction and prevention of preeclampsia and intrauterine growth restriction (PREDO) study. International Journal of Epidemiology, 46(5), 1380–1381g. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyw154
Grobman, W. A., Parker, C., Wadhwa, P. D., Willinger, M., Simhan, H., Silver, B., Wapner, R. J., Parry, S., Mercer, B., Haas, D., Peaceman, A. M., Hunter, S., Wing, D., Caritis, S., Esplin, S., Hoffman, M., Ludmir, J., Iams, J., Long, E., Saade, G., Reddy, U. M., & nuMoM2b Network. (2016). Racial/ethnic disparities in measures of self-reported psychosocial states and traits during pregnancy. American Journal of Perinatology, 33(14), 1426–1432. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0036-1586510
Haas, D. M., Parker, C. B., Wing, D. A., Parry, S., Grobman, W. A., Mercer, B. M., Simhan, H. N., Hoffman, M. K., Silver, R. M., Wadhwa, P., Iams, J. D., Koch, M. A., Caritis, S. N., Wapner, R. J., Esplin, M. S., Elovitz, M. A., Foroud, T., Peaceman, A. M., Saade, G. R., Willinger, M., et al. (2015). A description of the methods of the nulliparous pregnancy outcomes study: Monitoring mothers-to-be (nuMoM2b). American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 212(4), 539.e1–539.e24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2015.01.019
Hajifoghaha, M., Ebadi, A., & Kariman, N. (2018). Persian translation of the pregnancy experiene scale (PES) – Brief version: Confirmatory factor analysis. Pakistan journal of Medical and Health Sciences, 12, 503–508.
Hammarberg, K., Wynter, K., Fisher, J., McBain, J., Gibson, F., Boivin, J., & McMahon, C. (2013). The experience of pregnancy – Does age or mode of conception matter? Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 31, 109–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/02646838.2013.782606
Hawkins, M., DiPietro, J. A., & Costigan, K. A. (1999). Social class differences in maternal stress appraisal during pregnancy. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 896, 439–441. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08164.x
Hurley, K. M., Caulfield, L. E., Sacco, L. M., Costigan, K. A., & DiPietro, J. A. (2004). Psychosocial influences in dietary patterns during pregnancy. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 105(6), 963–966. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jada.2005.03.007
Ibrahim, S. M., & Lobel, M. (2020). Conceptualization, measurement, and effects of pregnancy-specific stress: Review of research using the original and revised Prenatal Distress Questionnaire. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 43(1), 16–33. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-019-00068-7
Ikeda, M., Hayashi, M., & Kamibeppu, K. (2014). The relationship between attachment style and postpartum depression. Attachment and Human Development, 16(6), 557–572. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2014.941884
Kalra, B., Sridhar, G. R., Madhu, K., Balhara, Y. P., Sahay, R. K., & Kalra, S. (2013). Psychosocial management of diabetes in pregnancy. Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism, 17(5), 815–818. https://doi.org/10.4103/2230-8210.117216
Khalife-Ghaderi, F., Amiri-Farahani, L., Haghani, S., & Hasanpoor-Azghady, S. B. (2021). Examining the experience of childbirth and its predictors among women who have recently given birth. Nursing Open, 8, 63–71. https://doi.org/10.1002/nop2.603
Krusche, A., Crane, C., & Dymond, M. (2019). An investigation of dispositional mindfulness and mood during pregnancy. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 19, 273. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-019-2416-2
Larsen, R. J., Diener, E., & Emmons, R. A. (1986). Affect intensity and reactions to daily life events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(4), 803–814. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.51.4.803
Lee, Y., Kim, S., Choi, S. (2023). Effectiveness of mobile-based intervention Self-care for Pregnant Women at Work: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Occupational Health, 65, e012402. https://doi.org/10.1002/1348-9585.12402
Loo, E. X. L., Soh, S. E., Loy, S. L., Ng, S., Tint, M. T., Chan, S. Y., Huang, J. Y., Yap, F., Tan, K. H., Chern, B. S. M., Tan, H. H., Meaney, M. J., Karnani, N., Godfrey, K. M., Lee, Y. S., Chan, J. K. Y., Gluckman, P. D., Chong, Y. S., Shek, L. P., Eriksson, J. G., et al. (2021). Cohort profile: Singapore preconception study of long-term maternal and child outcomes (S-PRESTO). European Journal of Epidemiology, 36(1), 129–142. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10654-020-00697-2
Lund, J. I., Kleinplatz, P. J., Charest, M., & Huber, J. D. (2019). The relationship between the sexual self and the experience of pregnancy. Journal of Perinatal Education, 28(1), 43–50. https://doi.org/10.1891/1058-1243.28.1.43
Malik, A., Park, S., Mumtaz, S., Rowther, A., Zulfiqar, S., Perin, J., Zaidi, A., Atif, N., Rahman, A., & Surkan, P. J. (2023). Perceived social support and women’s empowerment and their associations with pregnancy experiences in anxious women: A study from urban Pakistan. Maternal and Child Health Journal. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-023-03588-63
McManus, M. A., Khalessi, A. A., Lin, J., Ashraf, J., & Reich, S. M. (2017). Positive feelings during pregnancy, early feeding practices, and infant health. Pediatrics International, 59(5), 593–599. https://doi.org/10.1111/ped.13209
Monk, C., Leight, K. L., & Fang, Y. (2008). The relationship between women’s attachment style and perinatal mood disturbance: Implications for screening and treatment. Archives of Womens Mental Health, 11(2), 117–129. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-008-0005-x
Mousavi, S. R., Amiri-Farahani, L., Haghani, S., & Pezaro, S. (2022). Comparing the effect of childbirth preparation courses delivered both in-person and via social media on pregnancy experience, fear of childbirth, birth preference and mode of birth in pregnant Iranian women: A quasi-experimental study. PLoS One, 17(2), e0272613. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0272613
O’Leary, K., Dockray, S., & Hammond, S. (2016). Positive prenatal well-being: Conceptualising and measuring mindfulness and gratitude in pregnancy. Archives of Womens Mental Health, 19, 665–673. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-016-0620-x
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/014662167700100306
Reich, S. M., Tulagan, N., Dahlin, M., Labaff, S., Dutt, N., & Rahmani, A. (2022). Pregnant in a pandemic: Connecting perceptions of uplifts and hassles to mental health. Journal of Health Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1177/13591053221120115
Salehi, L., Rahimzadeh, M., Molaei, E., Zaheri, H., & Esmaelzadeh-Saeieh, S. (2020). The relationship among fear and anxiety of COVID-19, pregnancy experience, and mental health disorder in pregnant women: A structural equation model. Brain and Behavior, 10(11), e01835. https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.1835
Simons, S. S., Beijers, R., Cillessen, A. H., & de Weerth, C. (2015). Development of the cortisol circadian rhythm in the light of stress early in life. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 62, 292–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.08.024
Sousa, V. D., & Rojjanasrirat, W. (2011). Translation, adaptation and validation of instruments or scales for use in cross-cultural health care research: A clear and user-friendly guideline. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice, 17(2), 268–274. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2753.2010.01434.x
Spielberger, C. (1977). State-trait anxiety inventory for adults. Mind Garden.
Squires, A., Aiken, L. H., van den Heede, K., Sermeus, W., Bruyneel, L., Lindqvist, R., Schoonhoven, L., Stromseng, I., Busse, R., Brzostek, T., Ensio, A., Moreno-Casbas, M., Rafferty, A. M., Schubert, M., Zikos, D., & Matthews, A. (2013). A systematic survey instrument translation process for multi-country, comparative health workforce studies. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 50(2), 264–273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2012.02.015
Tan, C. W., Tan, H. S., Sultana, R., Meaney, M. J., Kee, M. Z. L., & Sng, B. L. (2022). Association of pain, analgesic, psychological, and socioeconomic factors with sub-acute pain after childbirth: A prospective cohort study. Journal of Clinical Anesthesia, 83, 110978. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinane.2022.110978
Tollenaar, M. S., Beijers, R., Jansen, J., Riksen-Walraven, J. M., & de Weerth, C. (2011). Maternal prenatal stress and cortisol reactivity to stressors in human infants. Stress, 14(1), 53–65. https://doi.org/10.3109/10253890.2010.499485
Urizar, G. G., Murillo, J., & Miller, K. (2023). Factors associated with prenatal health behaviors among low-income, ethnic minority women. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(3), 1695. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20031695
Van den Bergh, B. R. H. (1990). The influence of maternal emotions during pregnancy on fetal and neonatal behavior. Journal of Prenatal & Perinatal Psychology and Health, 5, 119–130.
Van der Meulen, R. T., Veringa-Skiba, I. K., Van Steensel, F. J. A., Bögels, S. M., & De Bruin, E. I. (2023). Mindfulness-based childbirth and parenting for pregnant women with high fear of childbirth and their partners: Outcomes of a randomized controlled trial assessing short- and longer-term effects on psychological well-being, birth and pregnancy experience. Midwifery, 116, 103545. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.midw.2022.103545
van der Zwan, J. E., de Vente, W., Koot, H. M., & Huizink, A. C. (2017). Validation of the Dutch version of the pregnancy experience scale. Midwifery, 50, 16–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.midw.2017.03.018
van Dijk, W., Oosterman, M., Jansen, I., de Vente, W., & Huizink, A. (2021). Stress- and smoke free pregnancy study protocol: A randomized controlled trial of a personalized eHealth intervention including heart rate variability-biofeedback to support pregnant women quit smoking via stress reduction. BMC Public Health, 21(1), 905. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-10910-w
Verner, G., Epel, E., Lahti-Pulkkinen, M., Kajantie, E., Buss, C., Lin, J., Blackburn, E., Räikkönen, K., Wadhwa, P. D., & Entringer, S. (2021). Maternal psychological resilience during pregnancy and newborn telomere length: A prospective study. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 178(2), 183–192. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2020.19101003
Wallis, A. B., Cherecheş, R. M., Mărginean, C., Brînzaniuc, A., Pop, O. M., & Rus, I. A. (2011). Advancing maternal and child health in Romania: An integrated ssessment for the determinants of pregnancy outcomes (MAIA) summary 2011. Centrul pentru Sănătate Publică și Politici de Sănătate, Universitatea Babeș-Bolyai Cluj-Napoca.
WHO, Regional Office for Europe; World Health Organization. (2008). Well-being measures in primary health care: The DepCare project. WHO.
Yeşilçinar, İ., Şahin, E., & Güvenç, G. (2022). Turkish version of the pregnancy experience scale-brief: Validity and reliability study. Central European Journal of Nursing and Midwifery, 13(3), 676–683. https://doi.org/10.15452/cejnm.2022.13.0004
Zaidi, A., Khan, A., Rowther, A., Nazir, H., Perin, J., Rauf, N., Mumtaz, S., Naseem, H., Atif, N., Rahman, A., Surkan, P. J., & Malik, A. (2022). Cultural adaptation and psychometric validation of the Pregnancy Experience Scale—Brief version (PES-Brief) in Pakistani women with antenatal anxiety symptoms. SSM—Mental Health, 2, 100055. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmmh.2021.100055
Zijlmans, M. A., Korpela, K., Riksen-Walraven, J. M., de Vos, W. M., & de Weerth, C. (2015). Maternal prenatal stress is associated with the infant intestinal microbiota. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 53, 233–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.01.006
Zijlmans, M. A. C., Beijers, R., Riksen-Walraven, M. J., & de Weerth, C. (2017). Maternal late pregnancy anxiety and stress is associated with children’s health: A longitudinal study. Stress, 20(5), 495–504. https://doi.org/10.1080/10253890.2017.1348497
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Section Editor information
Electronic Supplementary Material
English.MES.DiPietro
83 KB
Arabic PES. Gerges
27 KB
Dutch PES. Beijers
892 KB
Finnish.PES.PREDOstudy
692 KB
Turkish.PES.Esmeray
21 KB
Hindi.PES-Brief.Dere
144 KB
Urdu.Pes-Brief.Zaidi
32 KB
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2023 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this entry
Cite this entry
DiPietro, J.A., Costigan, K.A. (2023). Pregnancy Experience Scale: Original and Brief Versions. In: Krägeloh, C.U., Alyami, M., Medvedev, O.N. (eds) International Handbook of Behavioral Health Assessment. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89738-3_26-1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89738-3_26-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-89738-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-89738-3
eBook Packages: Springer Reference Behavioral Science and PsychologyReference Module Humanities and Social SciencesReference Module Business, Economics and Social Sciences