Skip to main content

Zoonotic Pathogens of Reptiles: An Unregarded Slithery Matter

  • Living reference work entry
  • First Online:
Zoonoses: Infections Affecting Humans and Animals

Abstract

Increased urbanization and introduction of exotic species of reptiles may act as drivers for the transmission of zoonotic pathogens through the environment. Reptiles are reservoirs of a wide range of pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, protozoa, helminths, pentastomids, and arthropod parasitic species, some of which may represent a public health concern. Reptiles can also be a source of life-threatening parasitoses through uncooked or raw meat ingestion. The main zoonotic disease associated to reptiles is salmonellosis, yet other less regarded diseases are equally devastating, such as spotted fever, sparganosis, or pentastomiasis.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abbate JM, Maia C, Pereira A, Arfuso F, Gaglio G, Rizzo M, Caracappa G, Marino G, Pollmeier M, Giannetto S, Brianti E (2020) Identification of trypanosomatids and blood feeding preferences of phlebotomine sand fly species common in Sicily, Southern Italy. PLoS One 15(3):e0229536

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Abdad MY, Abou Abdallah R, Fournier PE, Stenos J, Vasoo S (2018) A concise review of the epidemiology and diagnostics of rickettsioses: Rickettsia and Orientia spp. J Clin Microbiol 56(8):e01728-17

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anantaphruti MT, Nawa Y, Vanvanitchai Y (2011) Human sparganosis in Thailand: an overview. Acta Trop 118(3):171–176

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andoh M, Sakata A, Takano A, Kawabata H, Fujita H, Une Y, Goka K, Kishimoto T, Ando S (2015) Detection of Rickettsia and Ehrlichia spp. in ticks associated with exotic reptiles and amphibians imported into Japan. PLoS One 10(7):e0133700

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong DT, Parrish N (2021) Current updates on mycobacterial taxonomy, 2018 to 2019. J Clin Microbiol 59(7):e0152820

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barratt J, Chan D, Sandaradura I, Malik R, Spielman D, Lee R, Marriott D, Harkness J, Ellis J, Stark D (2016) Angiostrongylus cantonensis: a review of its distribution, molecular biology and clinical significance as a human pathogen. Parasitology 143(9):1087

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benejat L, Gravet A, Sifré E, Ben Amor S, Quintard B, Mégraud F, Lehours P (2014) Characterization of a Campylobacter fetus-like strain isolated from the faeces of a sick leopard tortoise (Stigmochelys pardalis) using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight as an alternative to bacterial 16S rDNA phylogeny. Lett Appl Microbiol 58(4):338–343

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bertrand S, Rimhanen-Finne R, Weill FX, Rabsch W, Thornton L, Perevoscikovs J, van Pelt W, Heck M (2008) Salmonella infections associated with reptiles: the current situation in Europe. Euro Surveill 13(24):18902

    Google Scholar 

  • Bingham AM, Graham SP, Burkett-Cadena ND, White GS, Hassan HK, Unnasch TR (2012) Detection of eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus RNA in North American snakes. Am J Trop Med Hyg 87(6):1140–1144

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Briggs-Gonzalez VS, Basille M, Cherkiss MS, Mazzotti FJ (2021) American crocodiles (Crocodylus acutus) as restoration bioindicators in the Florida Everglades. PLoS One 16(5):e0250510

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brookins MD, Wellehan JF, Roberts JF, Allison K, Curran SS, Childress AL, Greiner EC (2009) Massive visceral pentastomiasis caused by Porocephalus crotali in a dog. Vet Pathol 46(3):460–463

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bosco-Lauth AM, Hartwig AE, Bowen RA (2018) Reptiles and amphibians as potential reservoir hosts of Chikungunya virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 98(3):841–844

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bueno MG, Martinez N, Abdalla L, Duarte Dos Santos CN, Chame M (2016) Animals in the Zika virus life cycle: what to expect from Megadiverse Latin American Countries. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 10(12):e0005073

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burkett-Cadena ND, Graham SP, Hassan HK, Guyer C, Eubanks MD, Katholi CR, Unnasch TR (2008) Blood feeding patterns of potential arbovirus vectors of the genus Culex targeting ectothermic hosts. Am J Trop Med Hyg 79(5):809–815

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burns-Cox CJ, Prathap K, Clark E, Gillman R (1969) Porocephaliasis in Western Malaysia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 63(3):409–411

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) (1992a) Iguana-associated salmonellosis – Indiana, 1990. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 4:38–39

    Google Scholar 

  • CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) (1992b) Lizard-associated salmonellosis – Utah. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 41:610–611

    Google Scholar 

  • CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) (1999) Reptile-associated salmonellosis – selected states, 1996–1998. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 48:1009–1013

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen SH, Liu Q, Zhang YN, Chen JX, Li H, Chen Y, Steinmann P, Zhou XN (2010) Multi-host model-based identification of Armillifer agkistrodontis (Pentastomida), a new zoonotic parasite from China. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 4(4):e647

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen H, Li J, Zhang J, Guo X, Liu J, He J, Song Q, Zhang J, Chen M, Zheng Z, Chen D, Chen J (2019) Multi-locus characterization and phylogenetic inference of Leishmania spp. in snakes from Northwest China. PLoS One 14(4):e0210681

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chiodini RJ, Sundberg JP (1981) Salmonellosis in reptiles: a review. Am J Epidemiol 113:494–499

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Choi HS, Shin SU, Bae EH, Ma SK, Kim SW (2016) Infectious spondylitis in a patient with chronic kidney disease: identification of Campylobacter fetus Subsp. testudinum by 16S ribosomal RNA sequencing. Jpn J Infect Dis 69(6):517–519

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Collado L, Figueras MJ (2011) Taxonomy, epidemiology, and clinical relevance of the genus Arcobacter. Clin Microbiol Rev 24(1):174–192

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Colston TJ (2017) Gut microbiome transmission in lizards. Mol Ecol 26(4):972–974. https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.13987

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cortéz-Gómez AMM, Ruiz-Agudelo CA, Valencia-Aguilar A, Ladle RJ (2015) Ecological functions of neotropical amphibians and reptiles: a review. Univ Sci 20(2):229–245

    Google Scholar 

  • Costa MKBD, Alves RRDN, Navoni JA, Freire EMX (2021) Ethnozoology of snakebite victims in a risk area in Northeast Brazil. Toxicon 201:155–163

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Coughlan S, Mulhair P, Sanders M, Schonian G, Cotton JA, Downing T (2017) The genome of Leishmania adleri from a mammalian host highlights chromosome fission in Sauroleishmania. Sci Rep 7:43747

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Corrente M, Madio A, Friedrich KG, Greco G, Desario C, Tagliabue S, D'Incau M, Campolo M, Buonavoglia C (2004) Isolation of Salmonella strains from reptile faeces and comparison of different culture media. J Appl Microbiol 96(4):709–715

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Corrente M, Totaro M, Martella V, Campolo M, Lorusso A, Ricci M, Buonavoglia C (2006) Reptile-associated salmonellosis in man, Italy. Emerg Infect Dis 12(2):358–359

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Corrente M, Sangiorgio G, Grandolfo E, Bodnar L, Catella C, Trotta A, Martella V, Buonavoglia D (2017) Risk for zoonotic Salmonella transmission from pet reptiles: a survey on knowledge, attitudes and practices of reptile-owners related to reptile husbandry. Prev Vet Med 146:73–78

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crump M (2021) Eye of Newt and Toe of Frog, Adder's Fork and Lizard's Leg. University of Chicago Press

    Google Scholar 

  • De Luca C, Iraola G, Apostolakos I, Boetto E, Piccirillo A (2020) Occurrence and diversity of Campylobacter species in captive chelonians. Vet Microbiol 241:108567

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Jong B, Andersson Y, Ekdahl K (2005) Effect of regulation and education on reptile-associated salmonellosis. Emerg Infect Dis 11:398–403

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Denegri GM (1993) The complete biological cycle of Diphyllobothrium erinaceieuropaei (Cestoidea, Pseudophyllidea) under experimental conditions. Helminthologia 30:177–179

    Google Scholar 

  • Dollfus RP, Canet J (1954) Sur un pentastomide: Raillietiella (Heymonsia) hemidactyli M. L. Hett 1934; supposé susceptible de parasiter l'homme consécutivement à l'ingestion thérapeutique de lézards vivants. Bulletin de la Société de pathologie exotique et de ses filiales 47(3):401–408

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ebani VV, Fratini F, Bertelloni F, Cerri D, Tortoli E (2012) Isolation and identification of mycobacteria from captive reptiles. Res Vet Sci 93(3):1136–1138

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ebani VV (2017) Domestic reptiles as source of zoonotic bacteria: A mini review. Asian Pac J Trop Med 10(8):723–728

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ette H, Fanton L, Adou Bryn KD, Botti K, Koffi K, Malicier D (2003) Human pentastomiasis discovered postmortem. Forensic Sci Int 137(1):52–54

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and European Center for Disease Control (ECDC) (2018) The European Union summary report on trends and sources of zoonoses, zoonotic agents and food-borne outbreaks in 2017. EFSA J 16(12):5500

    Google Scholar 

  • Fitzgerald C, Tu ZC, Patrick M, Stiles T, Lawson AJ, Santovenia M, Gilbert MJ, van Bergen M, Joyce K, Pruckler J, Stroika S, Duim B, Miller WG, Loparev V, Sinnige JC, Fields PI, Tauxe RV, Blaser MJ, Wagenaar JA (2014) Campylobacter fetus subsp. testudinum subsp. Nov. Isolated from humans and reptiles. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 64:2944–2948

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fagre AC, Pabilonia KL, Johnston MS, Morley PS, Burgess BA (2020) Comparison of detection methods for Salmonella enterica shedding among reptilian patients at a veterinary teaching hospital. J Vet Diagn Investig 32(1):118–123

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Friedman CR, Torigian C, Shillam PJ, Hoffman RE, Heltzel D, Beebe JL, Malcolm G, De Witt WE (1998) An outbreak of salmonellosis among children attending a reptile exhibit at a zoo. J Pediatr 132:802–807

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gautam A, Kaphle K, Shrestha B, Phuyal S (2020) Susceptibility to SARS, MERS, and COVID-19 from animal health perspective. Open Vet J 10(2):164–177

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert MJ, Kik M, Timmerman AJ, Severs TT, Kusters JG, Duim B, Wagenaar JA (2014) Occurrence, diversity, and host association of intestinal Campylobacter, Arcobacter, and Helicobacter in reptiles. PLoS One 9(7):e101599

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert MJ, Duim B, Zomer AL, Wagenaar JA (2019) Living in cold blood: Arcobacter, Campylobacter, and Helicobacter in reptiles. Front Microbiol 10:1086

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gomez-Puerta LA, Baselly L, Lopez-Urbina MT, Gonzalez AE, Mayor P (2020) Visceral infection by Porocephalus spp. (Pentastomida) in Neotropical wild mammals. J Helminthol 94:e141

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Goławska O, Zajac M, Maluta A, Pristas P, Hamarová L, Wasyl D (2019) Complex bacterial flora of imported pet tortoises deceased during quarantine: another zoonotic threat? Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 65:154–159

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gouda AS, Mégarbane B (2021) Snake venom-derived bradykinin-potentiating peptides: a promising therapy for COVID-19? Drug Dev Res 82(1):38–48

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gutiérrez JM, Calvete JJ, Habib AG, Harrison RA, Williams DJ, Warrell DA (2017) Snakebite envenoming. Nat Rev Dis Primers 3:17063

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greiner EC (2003) Coccidiosis in reptiles. In: Seminars in avian and exotic pet medicine, vol 12, No. 1. WB Saunders, pp 49–56

    Google Scholar 

  • Iatta R, Mendoza-Roldan JA, Latrofa MS, Cascio A, Brianti E, Pombi M, Gabrielli S, Otranto D (2021) Leishmania tarentolae and Leishmania infantum in humans, dogs and cats in the Pelagie archipelago, southern Italy. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 15(9):e0009817

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ji W, Wang W, Zhao X, Zai J, Li X (2020) Cross-species transmission of the newly identified coronavirus 2019-nCoV. J Med Virol 92(4):433–440

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johny J, Kumar A, Kolar VV, Hamide A (2018) Eosinophilic meningitis caused by consumption of meat of monitor lizard (Varanus bengalensis). Neurol India 66(4):1166

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kalita B, Saviola AJ, Samuel SP, Mukherjee AK (2021) State-of-the-art review – a review on snake venom-derived antithrombotics: potential therapeutics for COVID-19-associated thrombosis? Int J Biol Macromol 192:1040–1057

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kar S, Rodriguez SE, Akyildiz G, Cajimat MNB, Bircan R, Mears MC, Bente DA, Keles AG (2020) Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus in tortoises and Hyalomma aegyptium ticks in East Thrace Turkey: potential of a cryptic transmission cycle. Parasit Vectors 13(1):201. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-020-04074-6

  • Kelehear C, Spratt DM, Dubey S, Brown GP, Shine R, Salamin N (2011) Using combined morphological allometric and molecular approaches to identify species of the genus Raillietiella (Pentastomida). PLoS ONE 6(9):e24936. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0024936

  • Khamboonruang C (1991) The present status of trichinellosis in Thailand, Southeast Asian. J Trop Med Public Health 22 Suppl:312–315

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klatt S, Simpson L, Maslov DA, Konthur Z (2019) Leishmania tarentolae: taxonomic classification and its application as a promising biotechnological expression host. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 13(7):e0007424

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klemens MW, Thorbjarnarson JB (1995) Reptiles as a food resource. Biodivers Conserv 4(3):281–298

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kohl KD, Brun A, Magallanes M, Brinkerhoff J, Laspiur A, Acosta JC, Caviedes-Vidal E, Bordenstein SR (2017) Gut microbial ecology of lizards: insights into diversity in the wild, effects of captivity, variation across gut regions and transmission. Mol Ecol 26(4):1175–1189

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kuo MM, Lane RS, Giclas PC (2000) A comparative study of mammalian and reptilian alternative pathway of complement-mediated killing of the Lyme disease spirochete (Borrelia burgdorferi). J Parasitol 86(6):1223–1228

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Le Souëf AT, Barry M, Brunton DH, Jakob-Hoff R, Jackson B (2015) Ovariectomy as treatment for ovarian bacterial granulomas in a Duvaucel's gecko (Hoplodactylus duvaucelii). N Z Vet J 63(6):340–344

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lepetz V, Massot M, Chaine AS, Clobert J (2009) Climate warming and the evolution of morphotypes in a reptile. Glob Change Biol 15(2):454–466

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu LN, Zhang X, Jiang P, Liu RD, Zhou J, He RZ, Cui J, Wang ZQ (2015) Serodiagnosis of sparganosis by ELISA using recombinant cysteine protease of Spirometra erinaceieuropaei spargana. Parasitol Res 114(2):753–757

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Majláthová V, Majláth I, Derdáková M, Víchová B, Pet'ko B (2006) Borrelia lusitaniae and green lizards (Lacerta viridis), Karst Region, Slovakia. Emerg Infect Dis 12(12):1895–1901

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Majláthová V, Majláth I, Hromada M, Tryjanowski P, Bona M, Antczak M, Peťko B (2008) The role of the sand lizard (Lacerta agilis) in the transmission cycle of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato. Int J Med Microbiol 298:161–167

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Magnino S, Colin P, Dei-Cas E, Madsen M, McLauchlin J, Nöckler K, Maradona MP, Tsigarida E, Vanopdenbosch E, Van Peteghem C (2009) Biological risks associated with consumption of reptile products. Int J Food Microbiol 134(3):163–175

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marschang RE (2011) Viruses infecting reptiles. Viruses 3(11):2087–2126

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mendoza-Roldan JA, Colella V, Lia RP, Nguyen VL, Barros-Battesti DM, Iatta R, Dantas-Torres F, Otranto D (2019) Borrelia burgdorferi (sensu lato) in ectoparasites and reptiles in southern Italy. Parasit Vectors 12(1):35

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mendoza-Roldan JA, Modry D, Otranto D (2020) Zoonotic parasites of reptiles: a crawling threat. Trends Parasitol 36(8):677–687

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mendoza-Roldan JA, Mendoza-Roldan MA, Otranto D (2021a) Reptile vector-borne diseases of zoonotic concern. Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl 15:132–142

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mendoza-Roldan JA, Ravindran Santhakumari Manoj R, Latrofa MS, Iatta R, Annoscia G, Lovreglio P, Stufano A, Dantas-Torres F, Davoust B, Laidoudi Y, Mediannikov O, Otranto D (2021b) Role of reptiles and associated arthropods in the epidemiology of rickettsioses: a one health paradigm. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 15(2):e0009090

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mendoza-Roldan JA, Latrofa MS, Iatta R, Manoj RS, Panarese R, Annoscia G, Pombi M, Zatelli A, Beugnet F, Otranto D (2021c) Detection of Leishmania tarentolae in lizards, sand flies and dogs in southern Italy, where Leishmania infantum is endemic: hindrances and opportunities. Parasit Vectors 14(1):461

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mendoza-Roldan JA, Lia RP, Tarallo VD, Annoscia G, Bezerra-Santos MA, Otranto D (2022a) Raillietiella hemidactyli (Pentastomida: Raillietiellidae) in Tarentola mauritanica geckoes: a new zoonotic parasite for Europe. Acta Trop 228:106316

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mendoza‐Roldan JA, Latrofa MS, Tarallo VD, Manoj RRS, Bezerra‐Santos MA, Annoscia G, Iatta R, Otranto D (2022b) Transbound Emerg Dis 69(5):2856–2866. https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.14438

  • Mermin J, Hutwagner L, Vugia D, Shallow S, Daily P, Bender J, J, Koehler J, Marcus R, and Angulo FJ. (2004) Reptiles, amphibians and human Salmonella infection: a population-based, case-control study. Clin Infect Dis 38:S253–S261

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer Sauteur PM, Relly C, Hug M, Wittenbrink MM, Berger C (2013) Risk factors for invasive reptile-associated salmonellosis in children. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 13(6):419–421

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell MA, Shane SM (2000) Preliminary findings of Salmonella spp. in captive green iguanas (Iguana iguana) and their environment. Prev Vet Med 45(3–4):297–304

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell MA (2011) Zoonotic diseases associated with reptiles and amphibians: an update. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract 14(3):439–456, v–vi

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mohabey DM, Samant B (2019) Cretaceous-Paleogene transition of reptilian tetrapods across Deccan volcanism in India. Open J Geol 9(10):–639

    Google Scholar 

  • Murphy D, Oshin F (2015) Reptile-associated salmonellosis in children aged under 5 years in South West England. Arch Dis Child 100(4):364–365

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nieto NC, Foley JE, Bettaso J, Lane RS (2009) Reptile infection with Anaplasma phagocytophilum, the causative agent of granulocytic anaplasmosis. J Parasitol 95(5):1165–1170

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Njagu Z, Mihok S, Kokwaro E, Verloo D (1999) Isolation of Trypanosoma brucei from the monitor lizard (Varanus niloticus) in an endemic focus of Rhodesian sleeping sickness in Kenya. Acta Trop 72(2):137–148

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Novakova M, Literak I, Chevez L, Martins TF, Ogrzewalska M, Labruna MB (2015) Rickettsial infections in ticks from reptiles, birds and humans in Honduras. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 6(6):737–742

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Novo S, Leles D, Bianucci R, Araujo A (2015) Leishmania tarentolae molecular signatures in a 300 hundred-years-old human Brazilian mummy. Parasit Vectors 8(1):72. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-015-0666-z

  • Oya A, Doi R, Shirasaka A, Yabe S, Sasa M (1983) Studies on Japanese encephalitis virus infection of reptiles. I. Experimental infection of snakes and lizards. Jpn J Exp Med 53(2):117–123

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Patrick ME, Gilbert MJ, Blaser MJ, Tauxe RV, Wagenaar JA, Fitzgerald C (2013) Human infections with new subspecies of Campylobacter fetus. Emerg Infect Dis 19:1678–1680

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parameswaran K (2006) Case series of eosinophilic meningoencephalitis from South India. Ann Indian Acad Neurol 9(4):217

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pees M, Rabsch W, Plenz B, Fruth A, Prager R, Simon S, Schmidt V, Munch S, Braun P (2013) Evidence for the transmission of Salmonella from reptiles to children in Germany, July 2010 to October 2011. Euro Surveill 18(46):20634

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Piccirillo A, Niero G, Calleros L, Pérez R, Naya H, Iraola G (2016) Campylobacter geochelonis sp. nov. isolated from the western Hermann's tortoise (Testudo hermanni hermanni). Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 66(9):3468–3476

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pignato S, Giammanco G, Santangelo C, Giammanco GM (1998) Endemic presence of Salmonella bongori 48:z35:- causing enteritis in children in Sicily. Res Microbiol 149(6):429–431

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pincheira-Donoso D, Bauer AM, Meiri S, Uetz P (2013) Global taxonomic diversity of living reptiles. PLoS One 8(3):e59741

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Poinar G Jr, Poinar R (2004) Evidence of vector-borne disease of Early Cretaceous reptiles. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 4(4):281–284

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pombi M, Giacomi A, Barlozzari G, Mendoza-Roldan J, Macrì G, Otranto D, Gabrielli S (2020) Molecular detection of Leishmania (Sauroleishmania) tarentolae in human blood and Leishmania (Leishmania) infantum in Sergentomyia minuta: unexpected host-parasite contacts. Med Vet Entomol 34(4):470–475

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pozio E, Owen IL, Marucci G, La Rosa G (2004) Trichinella papuae in saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) of Papua New Guinea. Emerg Infect Dis 10(8):1507–1509

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Presti A, Aguirre DT, De Andrés P, Daoud L, Fortes J, Muñiz J (2015) Cerebral sparganosis: case report and review of the European cases. Acta Neurochir 157(8):1339–1343

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reeves LE, Burkett-Cadena ND (2022) Lizards are important hosts for Zoonotic Flavivirus Vectors, Subgenus Culex, in the Southern USA. Front Trop Dis:4

    Google Scholar 

  • Ricard C, Mellentin J, Ben Abdallah Chabchoub R, Kingbede P, Heuclin T, Ramdame A, Bouquet A, Couttenier FS, Hendricx S (2013) Méningite à Salmonelle chez un nourrisson due à une tortue domestique. Arch Pediatr 22:605–607

    Google Scholar 

  • Roll U, Feldman A, Novosolov M, Allison A, Bauer AM, Bernard R, Böhm M, Castro-Herrera F, Chirio L, Collen B, Colli GR, Dabool L, Das I, Doan TM, Grismer LL, Hoogmoed M, Itescu Y, Kraus F, LeBreton M, Lewin A, Martins M, Maza E, Meirte D, Nagy ZT, de C Nogueira C, Pauwels OSG, Pincheira-Donoso D, Powney GD, Sindaco R, Tallowin OJS, Torres-Carvajal O, Trape JF, Vidan E, Uetz P, Wagner P, Wang Y, Orme CDL, Grenyer R, Meiri S (2017) The global distribution of tetrapods reveals a need for targeted reptile conservation. Nat Ecol Evol 1(11):1677–1682

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ruiz de Castañeda R, Bolon I, Gutiérrez JM (2021) A transdisciplinary approach to snakebite envenoming. Toxicon X 13:100088

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rukambile E, Sintchenko V, Muscatello G, Kock R, Alders R (2019) Infection, colonization and shedding of Campylobacter and Salmonella in animals and their contribution to human disease: a review. Zoonoses Public Health 66(6):562–578

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rymaszewska A, Grenda S (2008) Bacteria of the genus Anaplasma–characteristics of Anaplasma and their vectors: a review. Vet Med 53(11):573–584

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sánchez-Montes S, Isaak-Delgado AB, Guzmán-Cornejo C, Rendón-Franco E, Muñoz-García CI, Bermúdez S, Morales-Diaz J, Cruz-Romero A, Romero-Salas D, Dzul-Rosado K, Lugo-Caballero C, Colunga-Salas P, Becker I (2019) Rickettsia species in ticks that parasitize amphibians and reptiles: novel report from Mexico and review of the worldwide record. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 10(5):987–994

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schröter M, Speicher A, Hofmann J, Roggentin P (2006) Analysis of the transmission of Salmonella spp. through generations of pet snakes. Environ Microbiol 8:556–559

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seepersadsingh N, Adesiyun AA (2003) Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella spp. in pet mammals, reptiles, fish aquarium water, and birds in Trinidad. J Vet Med Ser B Infect Dis Vet Public Health 50:488–493

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sodagari HR, Habib I, Shahabi MP, Dybing NA, Wang P, Bruce M (2020) A review of the public health challenges of Salmonella and turtles. Vet Sci 7(2):56

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Soldati G, Lu ZH, Vaughan L, Polkinghorne A, Zimmermann DR, Huder JB, Pospischil A (2004) Detection of mycobacteria and chlamydiae in granulomatous inflammation of reptiles: a retrospective study. Vet Pathol 41:388–397

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stacy BA, Wellehan JF Jr (2010) Fatal septicemia caused by Helicobacter infection in a pancake tortoise (Malacochersus tornieri). J Vet Diagn Investig 22:660–662

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steele P, Allen C (eds) (2004) Handbook of Inca mythology. ABC-CLIO

    Google Scholar 

  • Stenos J, Graves S, Popov VL, Walker DH (2003) Aponomma hydrosauri, the reptile-associated tick reservoir of Rickettsia honei on Flinders Island, Australia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 69(3):314–317

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tappe D, Meyer M, Oesterlein A, Jaye A, Frosch M, Schoen C, Pantchev N (2011) Transmission of Armillifer armillatus ova at snake farm, The Gambia, West Africa. Emerg Infect Dis 17(2):251–254

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tappe D, Dijkmans AC, Brienen EA, Dijkmans BA, Ruhe IM, Netten MC, van Lieshout L (2014) Imported Armillifer pentastomiasis: report of a symptomatic infection in The Netherlands and mini-review. Travel Med Infect Dis 12(2):129–133

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tappe D, Sulyok M, Riu T, Rózsa L, Bodó I, Schoen C, Muntau B, Babocsay G, Hardi R (2016) Co-infections in visceral pentastomiasis, democratic republic of the Congo. Emerg Infect Dis 22(8):1333–1339

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ticha L, Kykalova B, Sadlova J, Gramiccia M, Gradoni L, Volf P (2021) Development of various Leishmania (Sauroleishmania) tarentolae strains in three Phlebotomus species. Microorganisms 9(11):2256

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tijsse-Klasen E, Fonville M, Reimerink JH, Spitzen-van der Sluijs A, Sprong H (2010) Role of sand lizards in the ecology of Lyme and other tick-borne diseases in the Netherlands. Parasit Vectors 3:42

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Valencia-Aguilar A, Cortés-Gómez AM, Ruiz-Agudelo CA (2013) Ecosystem services provided by amphibians and reptiles in Neotropical ecosystems. Int J Biodivers Sci Ecosyst Serv Manag 9(3):257–272

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Valentine KH, Harms CA, Cadenas MB, Birkenheuer AJ, Marr HS, Braun-McNeill J, Maggi RG, Breitschwerdt EB (2007) Emerg Infect Dis 13(6):949–950. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1306.061551

  • Waiswa C, Picozzi K, Katunguka-Rwakishaya E, Olaho-Mukani W, Musoke RA, Welburn SC (2006) Glossina fuscipes fuscipes in the trypanosomiasis endemic areas of south eastern Uganda: apparent density, trypanosome infection rates and host feeding preferences. Acta Trop 99(1):23–29

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Walden HDS, Iredale ME, Childress A, Wellehan JFX Jr, Ossiboff RJ (2020) Case Report: Invasive Pentastomes, Raillietiella orientalis (Sambon, 1922), in a Free-Ranging Banded Water Snake (Nerodia fasciata) in North Central Florida, USA. Front Vet Sci 7:467

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang CM, Shia WY, Jhou YJ, Shyu CL (2013) Occurrence and molecular characterization of reptilian Campylobacter fetus strains isolated in Taiwan. Vet Microbiol 164:67–76

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Whiley H, Custance G, Graves S, Stenos J, Taylor M, Ross K, Gardner M (2016) Rickettsia Detected in the Reptile Tick Bothriocroton hydrosauri from the Lizard Tiliqua rugosa in South Australia. Pathogens 5(2):41. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens5020041

  • Willis C, Wilson T, Greenwood M, Ward L (2002) Pet reptiles associated with a case of salmonellosis in an infant were carrying multiple strains of Salmonella. J Clin Microbiol 40(12):4802–4803

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkstrom VO, Fernstrom LL, Melin L, Boqvist S (2014) Salmonella isolated from individual reptiles and environmental samples from terraria in private households in Sweden. Acta Vet Scand 56:7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Winfield MD, Groisman EA (2003) Role of Nonhost environments in the lifestyles of Salmonella and Escherichia coli. Appl Environ Microbiol 69:3687–3694

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wei Z, Xu X, Yan M, Chang H, Li Y, Kan B, Zeng M (2019) Salmonella typhimurium and Salmonella enteritidis infections in sporadic diarrhea in children: source tracing and resistance to third-generation cephalosporins and ciprofloxacin. Foodborne Pathog Dis 16(4):244–255

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Woo P, Soltys MA (1969) The experimental infection of reptiles with Trypanosoma brucei. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 63(1):35–38

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Woodward DL, Khakhria R, Johnson WM (1997) Human salmonellosis associated with exotic pets. J Clin Microbiol 35:2786–2790

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schwarze-Zander C, Becker S, Wenzel J, Rockstroh JK, Spengler U, Yassin AF (2010) Bacteremia caused by a novel Helicobacter species in a 28-year-old man with X-linked agammaglobulinemia. J Clin Microbiol 48:4672–4676

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang JR, Guo XG, Chen H, Liu JL, Gong X, Chen DL, Chen JP (2019) Pathogenic Leishmania spp. detected in lizards from Northwest China using molecular methods. BMC Vet Res 15(1):446

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Domenico Otranto .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2023 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Roldan, J.A.M., Corrente, M., Otranto, D. (2023). Zoonotic Pathogens of Reptiles: An Unregarded Slithery Matter. In: Sing, A. (eds) Zoonoses: Infections Affecting Humans and Animals. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-85877-3_56-1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-85877-3_56-1

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-85877-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-85877-3

  • eBook Packages: Springer Reference MedicineReference Module Medicine

Publish with us

Policies and ethics