Abstract
This chapter provides an updated review of the evidence base for the treatment of individuals who have committed sexual offenses, with a focus on recent developments in treatment effectiveness and positive psychological approaches, as part of criminal justice reform. An earlier review of this literature concluded that existing evidence, while generally positive with regard to treatment effectiveness, was not adequately incorporated into policies, interventions, and programs for these individuals. Furthermore, while positive psychological approaches have been applied to treatment, their evidence base remained weak and under-researched. This chapter provides an updated review of the literature, finding additional evidence for treatment effectiveness, including positive psychological approaches. We conclude that there is sufficient evidence to undertake criminal justice reform and to improve services for individuals convicted of sexual offenses, and that the evidence provides clear direction for needed changes to policy and practice.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
American Psychological Association. (2005). Policy statement on evidence-based practice in psychology. Author. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/practice/guidelines/evidence-based-statement
Andrews, D. A. (1982). A personal, interpersonal and community-reinforcement perspective on deviant behaviour (PIC-R). National Criminal Justice Reference Service. Retrieved from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/89816NCJRS.pdf
Andrews, D. A., & Bonta, J. (2010). Rehabilitating criminal justice policy and practice. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 16(1), 39–55. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018362
Beech, A., Bourgon, G., Hanson, R. K., Harris, A. J., Langton, C., Marques, J., Miner, M., Murphy, W., Quinsey, V., Seto, M., Thornton, D., & Yates, P. M. (2007). Sexual offender treatment outcome research: CODC Guidelines for evaluation. Part 1: Introduction and overview. Corrections Research User Report No. 2007-02. Retrieved from https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/sxl-ffndr-trtmnt/index-en.aspx
Byrne, G. (2020). How the Good Lives Model can complement mentalization-based treatments for individuals who have offended with anti-social personality disorder and general forensic mental health needs: Practice update. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 64(15), 1587–1606. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X20928017
Clarke, M., Brown, S., & Völlm, B. (2017). Circles of support and accountability for sex offenders: A systematic review of outcomes. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 29(5), 446–478. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063215603691
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 155–159. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155
Cohen, T. H., Lowenkamp, C. T., Bechtel, K., & Flores, A. W. (2020). Risk assessment overrides: Shuffling the risk deck without any improvements in prediction. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 47(12), 1609–1629. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854820953449
Conference Board of Canada. (2009). The net federal fiscal benefit of CSC programming (Research Report R-208). Correctional Service of Canada. Retrieved from https://www.csc-scc.gc.ca/research/r208-eng.shtml
Conference Board of Canada. (2014). Cost-effective correctional services (Research Report RR 14-1). Correctional Service of Canada. Retrieved from https://www.csc-scc.gc.ca/005/008/092/rr14-1-eng.pdf
Correctional Service Canada. (2009). Evaluation report: Correctional Service Canada’s correctional programs. Author. Retrieved from https://www.csc-scc.gc.ca/text/pa/cop-prog/cop-prog-eng.pdf
Day, A., Ross, S., Casey, S., Vess, J., Johns, D., & Hobbs, G. (2019). The intensity and timing of sex offender treatment. Sexual Abuse, 31(4), 397–409. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063217745069
Dennis, J. A., Khan, O., Ferriter, M., Huband, N., Powney, M. J., & Duggan, C. (2012). Psychological interventions for adults who have sexually offended or are at risk of offending. Cochrane Database of Reviews, 12, CD007507. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD007507.pub2
Duwe, G. (2012). Can Circles of Support and Accountability (COSA) work in the United States? Preliminary results from a randomized experiment in Minnesota. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 25(2), 143–165. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063212453942
Duwe, G. (2018). Can Circles of Support and Accountability (CoSA) significantly reduce sexual recidivism? Results from a randomized controlled trial in Minnesota. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 14(4), 463–484. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-018-9325-7
Fernandez, Y. M. (2006). Focusing on the positive and avoiding the negative in sexual offender treatment. In W. L. Marshall, Y. M. Fernandez, L. E. Marshall, & G. A. Serran (Eds.), Sexual offender treatment: Controversial issues (pp. 187–197). Wiley.
Fernandez, Y. M., Shingler, J., & Marshall, W. L. (2006). Putting “behaviour” back in cognitive-behavioral treatment. In W. L. Marshall, Y. Fernandez, L. Marshall, & G. Serran (Eds.), Sexual offender treatment: Controversial issues (pp. 211–224). Wiley.
Fortune, C.-A. (2018). The Good Lives Model: A strength-based approach for youth offenders. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 38, 21–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2017.11.003
Fraga Dominguez, S., Jeglic, E. L., Calkins, C., & Leguizamo, A. (2018). Are Latinos who commit sexual offenses different? A closer examination of characteristics and offense patterns. Sexual Abuse, 30(7), 846–868. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063217710480
Gannon, T. A., Olver, M. E., Mallion, J. S., & James, M. (2019). Does specialized psychological treatment for offending reduce recidivism? A meta-analysis examining staff and program variables as predictors of treatment effectiveness. Clinical Psychology Review, 73, 101752. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2019.101752
Gendreau, P., & Goggin, C. (1996). Principles of effective correctional programming. Forum on Corrections Research, 8(3), 38–41. Retrieved from https://www.csc-scc.gc.ca/research/forum/e083/083l_e.pdf
Gendreau, P., & Goggin, C. (1997). Correctional treatment: Accomplishments and realities. In P. Van Voorhis, M. Braswell, & D. Lester (Eds.), Correctional counseling and rehabilitation (3rd ed., pp. 271–279). Anderson.
Gendreau, P., Little, T., & Goggin, C. (1996). A meta-analysis of the predictors of adult offender recidivism: What works! Criminology, 34(4), 575–608. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1996.tb01220.x
Grady, M., Edwards, D., & Pettus-Davis, C. (2017). A longitudinal outcome evaluation of a prison-based sex offender treatment program. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 29(3), 239–266. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063215585731
Grubin, D. (2010). The polygraph and forensic psychiatry [Editorial]. The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and Law, 38(4), 446–451.
Hanson, R., & Thornton, D. M. (1999). Static 99: Improving actuarial risk assessments for sex offenders. Solicitor General Canada. Retrieved from https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/rsrcs/pblctns/sttc-mprvng-actrl/sttc-mprvng-actrl-eng.pdf
Hanson, R. K., Bourgon, G., Helmus, L., & Hodgson, S. (2009). The principles of effective correctional treatment also apply to sexual offenders: A meta-analysis. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 36(9), 865–891. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854809338545
Hanson, R. K., Gordon, A., Harris, A. J. R., Marques, J. K., Murphy, W., Quinsey, V. L., & Seto, M. C. (2002). First report of the collaborative outcome data project on the effectiveness of psychological treatment for sex offenders. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 14(2), 169–194. https://doi.org/10.1177/107906320201400207
Hanson, R. K., & Morton-Bourgon, K. E. (2005). The characteristics of persistent sexual offenders: A meta-analysis of recidivism studies. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(6), 1154–1163. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.73.6.1154
Hanson, R. K., & Yates, P. M. (2004). Sexual violence: Risk factors and treatment. In M. Eliasson (Ed.), Anthology on interventions against violent men (pp. 151–166). Department of Industrial Relations.
Hanson, R. K., & Yates, P. M. (2013). Psychological treatment of sex offenders. Current Psychiatry Reports, 15(3), 348. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-012-0348-x
Harrison, J., O’Toole, S., Ammen, S., Ahlmeyer, S., Harrell, S., & Hernandez, J. (2020). Sexual offender treatment effectiveness within cognitive-behavioral programs: A meta-analytic investigation of general, sexual, and violent recidivism. Psychiatry, Psychology, and Law, 27(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2018.1485526
Kingston, D. A., Yates, P. M., & Firestone, P. (2012). The self-regulation model of sexual offender treatment: Relationship to risk and need. Law and Human Behavior, 36(3), 215–224. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0093960
Kahn, R. E., Jackson, K., Keiser, K., Ambroziak, G., & Levenson, J. S. (2020). Adverse childhood experiences among sexual offenders: associations with sexual recidivism risk and psychopathology. Sexual Abuse, 1079063220970031.
Kingston, D. A., Yates, P. M., & Olver, M. E. (2014). The self-regulation model of sexual offending: Intermediate outcomes and post-treatment recidivism. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 26(5), 429–449. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063213495896
Kingston, D. A., Yates, P. M., Simons, D. A., & Tyler, C. (2009, October). The self-regulation model of sexual offender treatment: Relationship to risk and the Good Lives Model (Conference presentation). In The 28th Annual Convention of the Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers (ATSA), Dallas, TX.
Koehler, J. A., Lösel, F., Akoensi, T. D., & Humphreys, D. K. (2013). A systematic review and meta-analysis on the effects of young offender treatment programs in Europe. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 9(1), 19–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-012-9159-7
Laws, D. R. (2009). Penile plethysmography: Strengths, limitations, innovations. In D. Thornton & D. R. Laws (Eds.), Cognitive approaches to the assessment of sexual interest in offenders (pp. 7–29). Wiley-Blackwell.
Laws, D. R., & Marshall, W. L. (2003). A brief history of behavioral and cognitive behavioral approaches to sexual offenders: Part 1. Early developments. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 15(2), 75–92. https://doi.org/10.1177/107906320301500201
Lipsey, M. W., & Cullen, F. T. (2007). The effectiveness of correctional rehabilitation: A review of systematic reviews. Annual Review of Law and Social Science, 3, 297–320. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.lawsocsci.3.081806.112833
Lösel, F. (2012). Offender treatment and rehabilitation: What works? In M. Maguire, R. Morgan, & R. Reiner (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of criminology (5th ed., pp. 986–1016). Oxford University Press.
Lösel, F., & Koehler, J. (2014, September 10–13). Can prisons reduce reoffending? A meta-evaluation of custodial and community treatment programs (Conference presentation). In The 14th Conference of the European Society of Criminology, Prague, CZ.
Lösel, F., Link, E., Schmucker, M., Bender, D., Breuer, M., Carl, L., Ednres, J., & Lauchs, L. (2020). On the effectiveness of sexual offender treatment in prisons: A comparison of two different evaluation designs in routine practice. Sexual Abuse, 32(4), 452–475. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063219871576
Lösel, F., & Schmucker, M. (2005). The effectiveness of treatment for sexual offenders: A comprehensive meta-analysis. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 1(1), 117–146. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-004-6466-7
Mann, R. E., Hanson, R. K., & Thornton, D. (2010). Assessing risk for sexual recidivism: Some proposals on the nature of psychologically meaningful risk factors. Sexual Abuse, 22(2), 191–217. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063210366039
Marshall, W. L., Fernandez, Y. M., Serran, G. A., Mulloy, R., Thornton, D., Mann, R. E., & Anderson, D. (2003). Process variables in the treatment of sexual offenders: A review of the relevant literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 8(2), 205–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-1789(01)00065-9
Marshall, W. L., & Laws, D. R. (2003). A brief history of behavioral and cognitive behavioral approaches to sexual offenders: Part 2. The modern era. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 15(2), 93–120. https://doi.org/10.1177/107906320301500202
Marshall, W. L., Marshall, L. E., Serran, G. A., & O’Brien, M. D. (2011). Rehabilitating sexual offenders: A strength-based approach. American Psychological Association.
Marshall, W. L., Serran, G., Moulden, H., Mulloy, R., Fernandez, Y. M., Mann, R. E., & Thornton, D. (2002). Therapist features in sexual offender treatment: Their reliable identification and influence on behaviour change. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 9(6), 395–405. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.335
McGrath, R. J., Cumming, G. F., Hoke, S. E., & Bonn-Miller, M. O. (2007). Outcomes in a community sex offender treatment program: A comparison between polygraphed and matched non-polygraphed offenders. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 19(4), 381–393. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11194-007-9058-z.
McGrath, R. J., Cumming, G. F., Burchard, B. L., Zeoli, S., & Ellerby, L. (2010). Current practices and emerging trends in sexual abuser management: The Safer Society 2009 North American Survey. Safer Society Press.
Meijer, E. H., Verschuere, B., Merckelbach, H. L. G. J., & Crombez, G. (2008). Sex offender management using the polygraph: A critical review. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 31(5), 423–429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2008.08.007
Mews, A., Di Bella, L., & Purver, M. (2017). Impact evaluation of the prison-based Core Sex Offender Treatment Programme. Ministry of Justice. Retrieved from https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/623876/sotp-report-web-.pdf
Miller, W. R., & Rollnick, S. (1991). Motivational interviewing: Preparing people to change addictive behavior. Guilford Press.
Miller, W. R., & Rollnick, S. (2002). Motivational interviewing: Preparing people for change (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
Miller, W. R., & Rollnick, S. (2013). Motivational interviewing: Helping people change (3rd ed.). Guilford Press.
Olver, M. E., Marshall, L. E., Marshall, W. L., & Nicholaichuk, T. P. (2020). A long-term outcome assessment of the effects on subsequent reoffense rates of a prison-based CBT/RNR sex offender treatment program with strength-based elements. Sexual Abuse, 32(2), 127–153. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063218807486
Olver, M. E., Stockdale, K. C., & Wormith, J. S. (2011). A meta-analysis of predictors of offender treatment attrition and its relationship to recidivism. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 79(1), 6–21. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022200
Prescott, D. S. (2009). Motivational interviewing in the treatment of sexual abusers. In D. S. Prescott (Ed.), Building motivation for change in sexual offenders. Safer Society Press.
Rice, M. E., & Harris, G. T. (2003). The size and sign of treatment effects in sex offender therapy. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 989(1), 428–440. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2003.tb07323.x
Romani, C. J., Morgan, R. D., Gross, N. R., & McDonald, B. R. (2012). Treating criminal behavior: Is the bang worth the buck? Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 18(1), 144–165. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024714
Rosky, J. W. (2012). The (f)utility of post-conviction polygraph testing. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 25(3), 259–281. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063212455668
Schmucker, M., & Lösel, F. (2008). Does sexual offender treatment work? A systematic review of outcome evaluations. Psicothema, 20(1), 10–19.
Schmucker, M., & Lösel, F. (2015). The effects of sexual offender treatment on recidivism: An international meta-analysis of sound quality evaluations. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 11(4), 597–630. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-015-9241-z
Schmucker, M., & Lösel, F. (2017). Sexual offender treatment for reducing recidivism among convicted sex offenders: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 13(1), 1–75. https://doi.org/10.4073/csr.2017.8
Seligman, M., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55(1), 5–14. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.5
Seto, M. C. (2005, November). The evolution of sex offender treatment: Taking the next step (Conference presentation). In The 24th Annual Research and Treatment Conference of the Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers, Salt Lake City, UT.
Seto, M. C. (2018). Pedophilia and sexual offending against children: Theory, assessment, and intervention (2nd ed.). American Psychological Association.
Shingler, J., & Mann, R. E. (2006). Collaboration in clinical work with sexual offenders: Treatment and risk assessment. In W. L. Marshall, Y. M. Fernandez, L. E. Marshall, & G. A. Serran (Eds.), Sexual offender treatment: Controversial issues (pp. 173–185). Wiley.
Simons, D. A., Yates, P. M., Kingston, D. A., & Tyler, C. (2009, October 2). Self-regulation model of sexual offending: Treatment compliance, motivation, and progress (Conference presentation). In The 28th Annual Convention of the Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers (ATSA), Dallas, TX.
Stinson, J. D., & Clark, M. D. (2017). Motivational interviewing with offenders: Engagement, rehabilitation, and reentry. Guilford Publications.
Ward, T., & Gannon, T. A. (2006). Rehabilitation, etiology, and self-regulation: The comprehensive good lives model of treatment for sexual offenders. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 11(1), 77–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2005.06.001
Ward, T., & Stewart, C. (2003). Criminogenic needs and human needs: A theoretical model. Psychology, Crime & Law, 9(2), 125–143. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316031000116247
Wilcox, D. (2009). Overview: Opportunities and responsibilities. In D. T. Wilcox (Ed.), The use of the polygraph in assessing, treating and supervising sex offenders: A practitioner’s guide (pp. 1–8). Wiley-Blackwell.
Willis, G. M., Ward, T., & Levenson, J. S. (2014). The Good Lives Model (GLM): An evaluation of GLM operationalization in North American treatment programs. Sexual Abuse, 26(1), 58–81. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063213478202
Wilson, R. J., McWhinnie, A., Picheca, J. E., Prinzo, M., & Cortoni, F. (2007a). Circles of support and accountability: Engaging community volunteers in the management of high-risk sexual offenders. Howard Journal of Criminal Justice, 46(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2311.2007.00450.x
Wilson, R. J., Cortoni, F. A., & Vermani, M. (2007b). Circles of support & accountability: A national replication of outcome findings. Ottawa, Ontario: Correctional Service of Canada.
Wilson, R., McWhinnie, A., & Wilson, C. (2008). Circles of support and accountability: An international partnership in reducing sexual offender recidivism. Prison Service Journal, 178, 26–36.
Wilson, R. J., Cortoni, F., & McWhinnie, A. W. (2009). Circles of support & accountability: A Canadian national replication of outcome findings. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 21(4), 412–430. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063209347724
Wilson, R. J., & Prinzo, M. (2002). Circles of support: A restorative justice initiative. Journal of Psychology & Human Sexuality, 13(3–4), 59–77. https://doi.org/10.1300/J056v13n03_05
Wormith, J. S., Gendreau, P., & Bonta, J. (2012). Deferring to clarity, parsimony, and evidence in reply to Ward, Yates, and Willis. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 39(1), 111–120. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854811426087
Yalom, I. D. (1995). The theory and practice of group psychotherapy. Basic Books (AZ).
Yates, P. M. (2003). Treatment of adult sexual offenders: A therapeutic cognitive-behavioral model of intervention. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 12(3–4), 195–232. https://doi.org/10.1300/J070v12n03_08
Yates, P. M. (2009). Using the Good Lives Model to motivate sexual offenders to participate in treatment. In D. S. Prescott (Ed.), Building motivation to change in sexual offenders (pp. 74–95). Safer Society Press.
Yates, P. M. (2013). Treatment of sexual offenders: Research, best practices, and emerging models. International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy, 8(3–4), 89–95. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0100989
Yates, P. M. (in press). Alternative measures of male sexual arousal. In L. A. Craig & R. M. Bartels (Eds.), Sexual deviance: Understanding and managing deviant sexual interest and paraphilic disorders. Wiley-Blackwell Publisher.
Yates, P. M., Deming, A., Wilczynski, A., & Jumper, S. (2019, November). Evidence-based treatment of sex offenders: New results from the International Project for Evidence-Based Practices with Sexual Abusers (IPEPSA) (Conference presentation). In The 38th Annual Convention of the Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers (ATSA), Atlanta, GA.
Yates, P. M., Goguen, B. C., Nicholaichuk, T. P., Williams, S. M., Long, C. A., Jeglic, E., & Martin, G. (2000). National sex offender programs (moderate, low, and maintenance intensity levels). Correctional Service Canada.
Yates, P. M., & Kingston, D. A. (2006). The self-regulation model of sexual offending: The relationship between offence pathways and status and dynamic sexual offence risk. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 18(3), 259–270. https://doi.org/10.1177/107906320601800304
Yates, P. M., & Kingston, D. A. (2016). The shortcomings of sex offender treatment: Are we doing something wrong? In D. R. Laws & W. O’Donahue (Eds.), Treatment of sex offenders: Strengths and weaknesses in assessment and intervention (pp. 261–279). Springer.
Yates, P. M., & Ward, T. (2008). Good lives, self-regulation, and risk management: An integrated model of sexual offender assessment and treatment. Sexual Abuse in Australia and New Zealand: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 1(1), 3–20.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Yates, P., Kingston, D. (2022). Treatment of Individuals Who Have Offended Sexually: An Update on Evidence-Based Practice. In: Jeglic, E., Calkins, C. (eds) Handbook of Issues in Criminal Justice Reform in the United States. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-77565-0_23
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-77565-0_23
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-77564-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-77565-0
eBook Packages: Law and CriminologyLaw and Criminology (R0)