Keywords

1 Introduction

In this chapter we examine the use of journeys in outdoor and environmental education as a vehicle for learning. As can be seen from the previous sentence the journey metaphor is embedded in our language and our ways of thinking, at least in the Western World. The chapter begins with a brief summary of historical expeditions of significance. We then provide an overview of research on the short- and long-term benefits of expeditions in a range of contexts including mountaineering, canoeing, sailing, hill-walking and cycling. Finally, we conclude with a consideration of the challenges to undertaking journeys, particularly those which may be long and adventurous. This chapter will be of interest to undergraduate students as expeditions and journeys are used in many outdoor and environmental education programmes. Knowing some of the key events in history and the current debates will help both understanding the sector and practice in different contexts.

2 History and Perspectives on Journey Metaphors

In many cultures around the world there is a tradition of journeys with a variety of different rationales. One early example comes from the Bedouin in the deserts of the middle east who continue to live nomadic lifestyles following the seasons so they can harvest food. The Bedouin passed on stories of people and places around the campfire at night long before radios and television were available. In Australia ‘going walkabout’ originates in Aboriginal culture as a rite of passage to transition from youth in to adulthood. In the UK there is a strong history of exploration in the polar regions and beyond. Well known from this tradition are explorers such as Shackleton and Scott and later Watkins and Fiennes in the Polar regions and Hilary and Norgay on Everest. The lists go on but these are just brief examples. It would be remiss not to mention one famous Norwegian zoologist Fridtjof Nansen who was also an explorer, passionate skier and Nobel prize winner. He is also widely considered to be the founding rather of Friluftsliv (see Chap. 9). In many respects Nansen was responsible for introducing journeys into the Norwegian psyche and social cultural fabric which continues to this day.

It is possible to go on with examples of explorers from different countries for a long time but the point here is to provide a few illustrative examples so that readers can identify people from their respective countries and socio-cultural traditions. Readers who are interested in the history of expeditions are encouraged to follow references and further reading at the end of the chapter.

After reading this chapter you should be able to identify explorers from your own country and maybe even other countries too. The golden thread running through these individuals and traditions is journeys (or expeditions) and the insight that there are often benefits to them beyond the intended or stated purpose such as mapping or collecting specimens. The metaphor of the outward journey or expedition with the journey that all humans navigate through life is perhaps the most striking metaphor present in outdoor education. Thus, the use of journeys and navigation in outdoor education is foundational and can be seen in many different practices around the world whether it be a short half day walk (journey) or a 6-week expedition by sail, paddle, bike or on foot. It is easy to see the tradition of journeys continuing today building on these historical antecedents in organisations such as Outward Bound International, Sail Training International, numerous gap year organisations around the world and with organisations such as The Royal Geographical Society with the Institute of British Geographers (RGS-IBG), UK; The Young Explorers Trust (YET), UK; Wilderness Education Association (WEA), USA; The Explorers Club of New York, USA.

The journey metaphor can also be seen through the use of pedagogical tools – such as teaching map reading. Explicitly this appears as a skill to acquire but is also a metaphor for finding one’s way and making decisions in life. Tom Smith (1980) referred to this relationship as the Wilderness Beyond and the Wilderness Within. We go to the wilderness beyond to explore the wilderness within us, as part of our personal growth journeys. One interesting aspect to journeys is that they often create an unpressured environment where conversations can unfold at the pace of different individuals and incorporate reflection, deeper dialogue and lighter discussions at a rhythm that is often reflected in activities throughout days … cooking meals, pitching tents, walking, canoeing, cycling, sailing and so on. Working with individuals in groups in these contexts requires an inter- and intra-personal awareness of leaders which is demanding and a specific skill set (Allison & Von Wald, 2010).

3 Journeys Are a Fundamental Component of Outdoor and Environmental Education

The execution of journeys has traditionally been a fundamental component of Outdoor and Environmental Education in schools, colleges, universities and voluntary organisations. Virtually all higher education (HE) outdoor programmes have some form of physical journey, expedition or fieldwork embedded within them (e.g. See Stott, 2016). demonstrate technical and teaching competence. Many education syllabi require candidates to undertake journeys.

Since the first journeys and expeditions were undertaken for educational purposes in the 1920/30s many aspects of outdoor education have changed. Today, journeys and expeditions can be cheap or expensive depending on people, places and purposes and can be connected with other forms of outdoor education which have become vogue such as place based education, urban outdoor education, low cost and low risk education, but they remain popular and valuable.

4 Benefits of Journeys – Research

Examples in the previous section suggest that journeys or expeditions must have some value or give some benefit, otherwise why are they important? Here we discuss research undertaken by key researchers (over the past 5 years) who have been pivotal in revealing the benefits of journeys – evidence to support beneficial outcomes to individuals who undertake journeys and expeditions, of both long and short duration. Researchers have consistently identified benefits across multiple domains including intrapersonal and interpersonal (Allison & Von Wald, 2010; Smith, 1980), health and fitness (Allison et al., 2018), careers/professional (Ramirez et al., 2020), developing an ethic of service (Ramirez et al., 2020), moral (Marshall et al., 2019) and environmental (Stott et al., 2015).

Stott et al. (2015) focussed on post-1990 literature and found 35 key publications which met their inclusion criteria: youth expedition; duration exceeding 14 days; self-propelled; and based overseas or out-of-state. Their thematic analysis on these 35 research papers found that youth expeditions were associated with a range of benefits for participants. Using Greenaway’s (1998) ‘Four Arrows’ model of personal growth, Stott et al. (2015) identified outcomes associated with overseas youth expedition participation to be: (1) upward personal growth (realising potential) including increased confidence; physical and social resilience; self-reliance and ability to overcome challenges, (2) outward personal growth (learning about & relating to others), (3) inward personal growth (learning about self) and (4) downward personal growth (learning about environment). The processes that were valued in overseas expeditions and which, with some caution, may be linked with some of the aforementioned outcomes included: genuine independence; group isolation and self-sufficiency; person-centred leadership; positive responses to stress and physically demanding activity.

5 Personal Growth & Development

Perhaps one of the most oft-cited benefits of journeys relates to the personal growth and development that emerges during and after journeys. Personal growth is often used interchangeably with personal development and refers to a loose collection of benefits sometimes referred to as non- cognitive benefits. These terms have been operationalised using multiple measurement constructs. A recent study by Allison et al. (2018) used four measures of personal development to assess changes in young people aged 15–22 who participated in six of the British Exploring Society’s summer expeditions which lasted either 3 or 5 weeks, and took place in either jungle, desert, polar or mountain environments. A survey developed from four questionnaires measured leadership skills, GRIT (a surrogate for passion and perseverance; Duckworth, 2016), coping strategy use, and mental toughness. Participants completed the survey within 1 month prior to leaving on the expedition, within 1 month of returning and 3–4 months later. 58 participants completed all three surveys at pre, post and delayed time points. These responses used for the main analysis found changes both quantitatively and qualitatively with regard to personal development and concluded that for most people the experiences were significant in positively influencing mental toughness, GRIT and leadership to succeed, and ability to work as part of a team.

5.1 Short or Long-Term Benefits of Longer Journeys or Expeditions?

Stott et al. (2015) provided evidence of short-term benefits of expeditions but also highlighted a gap in research regarding the longer-term benefits – approximately 2 years or more. This is ironic given the repeated claim that these are ‘life changing’ experiences. If that claim is to be believed, then one might expect evidence of people reporting the long-term influence of taking part in expeditions. Recent studies have started to address this gap.

First, Ramirez et al. (2020) drew upon three retrospective studies (looking back to 40 years or more) that explored the perceived long-lasting influence of expeditions in participant’s lives. One study researched the perceptions of former participants of Class Afloat, a sailing voyage of one or two semesters, involving high school students (with 1–27 years of retrospection). The second study researched the long-term outcomes of three canoe and mountaineering high school expeditions organised by the staff and students of a Scottish high school in the 1970s (with 40 years of retrospection). The third study researched the perceived long-lasting influence of a British Exploring Society expedition (with 5–70 years of retrospection). While the settings of each study differed, all identified three common enduring outcomes of youth expeditions: increased confidence; learning about oneself; and learning about others. British Exploring Society expedition participants reported that the expedition (which was based in a wilderness area) increased their environmental awareness and appreciation for nature and the outdoors. Participants of the other two expeditions identified the themes of gratefulness and service – they were appreciative of the opportunity and wanted to give back to others what they had received. The ex-students of the Scottish high school also identified planning and preparation as another important outcome. So, research evidence is now beginning to accumulate to suggest that journeys (here called expeditions) have a number of long-term beneficial outcomes.

Second in their systematic review of research on sail training, Schijf et al. (2017) identified 18 research studies meeting their inclusion criteria and found evidence that participants experienced a positive long-term effect in regard to personal and social domains. However, they also identified methodological weaknesses (over reliance on a limited set of methods) and that there was limited demographic information available impacting generalizability of findings. Finally, they concluded that while the evidence was broadly supportive of general claims regarding the value of Sail Training as a form of youth development, the research was non-cumulative and lacked coherence. Sail Training International is the umbrella organisation coordinating provision around the world and organising the Tall Ships Races annually. Sail Training is a form of outdoor education that involves using traditional sailing vessels for journeys (ranging from day sails in protected waters to year-long voyages across oceans) for the purposes of learning to sail (skill development), curriculum contributions (connections to schools), personal development and cross-cultural learning.

Third, in a retrospective study examining perceptions of programme alumni from a tall ship sailing study school, Marshall et al. (2019) analysed participant reflections to understand how the experience was perceived as catalysing or accelerating personal growth (including self-determination, responsibility, attentional flexibility, discipline, courage, moderate self-awareness, perspective, and realistic optimism) and social growth (including friendship, community, care for the other, empathy, humility, and loyalty). Participants largely identified the impact of the sailing program to be significant in paradigmatic ways, leading to personal and social growth which extends far beyond the experience itself. Importantly, the perception of significance did not appear to wane over time. Alumni connected habit formation to physical routines/rhythms practiced through ship duties. Reflective pauses from the bustle of activity – both contextual and programmatic – allowed participants to practice reflecting on their own values in light of their experience. The sailing program appears to accelerate the practice of these reflective virtues. Moving from loneliness to community, respondents consistently identified several significant conditions for cultivating friendship and community building: proximity, time, and shared goals. This whole study was a correlated attempt to assess their perceived personal and social growth understood through a neo-Aristotelian lens.

5.2 But What Are the Benefits of Shorter Journeys of Duration from Perhaps an Hour to a Day?

Much of the research cited so far in this chapter examines the impacts of journeys that are extended – multi day, week or even months in duration. But what about shorter journeys? Do they reap the same benefits? In the next section we look at shorter journeys.

Perhaps the most fundamental and frequent means of making journeys is on foot. For most people walking is the most accessible and cheapest way to make a journey as it requires no capital investment in a machine like a bicycle or car – all you need is a pair of shoes. One benefit of walking over other more sedentary means of journeying (e.g. car or public transport) is the physical activity or exercise. However, there is now a growing body of evidence that walking can have benefits for a person’s mental health too. Research in the UK from the Sport England Active People Survey estimated that >23 million people (over 14 years of age) took part in recreational walking which was 58% of the population in 2014, whilst in Scotland this was between 79% and 88% of the population. In the US Bowker et al. (2012) projected that there will be a 45–82% increase in the number of days people will go hiking between 2008 and 2060 – so walking is popular and will continue to become more popular in future.

Morocza et al. (2019) conducted research on leaders and guests of a UK walking holiday company. Walking interviews were conducted with 17 volunteer walk leaders and these were complimented with physical activity measurements, location data and the Nature-relatedness scale. Five group interviews were also conducted with a total of 25 guests on three different walking holidays. Primary motivations for hill-walking included pleasure, escape from everyday life pressures, to re-charge, being in nature, social inclusion and health. The perceived benefits positively impacted on engagement. Connectedness to nature was linked to environmental knowledge and attitudes which manifested in pro-environmental walking behaviour. The findings have the scope to inform future walking promotion programmes and to encourage long-term engagement by shifting the focus of promotion messages to intrinsic motivational factors. The results support that hill-walking can be used as a tool for combined health and environmental awareness promotion.

Prince (2020) carried out a systematic review of papers published since 2015 and compiled evidence on the lasting impacts (>12 months) of outdoor residential experiences for young people in the UK. Thematic and comparative analysis showed the lasting impacts to be: self-confidence, independence and communication. Participants also identified confidence, teamwork, life skills, intra-personal skills and the take up of new opportunities/activities as the impacts of use in young people’s lives since their residential experience. The intensity and challenge of the outdoor adventure residentials, and the power of groups influenced longer lasting impacts. These findings from large datasets across a range of contexts have implications for funders and policy makers for the provision of outdoor adventure residentials for young people.

6 Challenges for Journeys?

As is the case for all practices in outdoor and environmental education there are challenges for using journeys. We now turn to an exploration of the key challenges…

6.1 Risk: Real and Perceived

As is the case for all practices in outdoor and environmental education there are challenges for using journeys. One of the biggest barriers might be perception of danger. Many people are anxious about the ‘unknown’ associated with going outdoors and often this is exacerbated by images communicated in the media. When creating marketing materials or speaking to prospective participants it is important to keep this in mind and adjust messaging accordingly. There are risks in all aspects of outdoor education and risk management is an essential component of journey planning and leadership. Perhaps we should remember that some journeys are deliberately undertaken as ‘adventures’, and that an adventure is an exciting or unusual experience which may be a bold, usually risky undertaking, with an uncertain outcome. (see Chap. 8)

6.2 Time

A second consideration is that as people’s lives seem to get faster and faster there are increasing pressures to fit more in to shorter time periods. For example, Outward Bound course lengths in the 1940s courses were normally 28 days. Today the majority of courses are 5 days long. British Exploring Society expeditions were traditionally 6-weeks in length, today participants are offered a choice of a 5-week or 3-week expedition. This means that using journeys can be challenging as they often rely on having time for conversations to unfold and operate at a different pace to many other practices which often involve no more than half day ‘episodes’.

6.3 Cost

It is common for people to critique outdoor education more generally for being expensive and therefore discriminating against those who, arguably, might benefit most from the experiences. Some argue that cost is the biggest barrier to participation in outdoor education but the evidence to support this is, at best, mixed. One response to this argument is that all young people are equally ‘in need’ or ‘at risk’ but the needs and risks manifest themselves in different ways for individuals which may be influenced by socio-economic status. Notwithstanding these arguments regarding distribution of resources, many sectors of outdoor education have tried to address inequalities by offering programmes with scholarships or bursaries (e.g. Sail Training International, Next Generation programme of The British Exploring Society), making strategic priorities to work with ‘hard to reach’ youth. For example, the Duke of Edinburgh Award in Scotland works in prisons with young people – as part of an impressive spectrum of provision.

6.4 Environmental Impact

Another challenge that outdoor educators must grapple with is the tension that arises when groups inevitably have an impact on the environment. All journeys have some type of impact on the environment. Impacts can range from trampling the ground (soil and vegetation), to disturbing wildlife and, for motorised journeys, emitting gases which can contribute to climate change. For further detailed discussion on this, Huddart and Stott (2019) have written a book with 17 chapters on the environmental impacts of outdoor recreation.

Transport produces around one third of the global anthropogenic release of CO2. Figure 14.1 is a schematic showing the relative impact of different modes of transport in terms of the CO2 emission per passenger per km travelled. According to Fig. 14.1, as students of outdoor and environmental education, we should really be trying to walk, cycle and canoe as much as we can, then if we need to go further afield, we should try to use public transport (trains, buses) and only drive, go by ferry/ship and fly when absolutely necessary. Perhaps, if we do travel by air, we should be trying to limit the number and length of flights, and when we get to our destination, it makes sense if we can stay for longer. Hopefully technological advances like solar airplanes will allow long distance travel to become carbon neutral in the future.

Fig. 14.1
A schematic chart plots C O 2 emission per passenger per kilometer traveled versus journey distance. The highest and lowest values estimated are as follows. Airplane (more than 1000, 1000). Walk (5, below 0.1).

Schematic showing the relative impact of different modes of transport in terms of the CO2 emission per passenger per km travelled and distance travelled. (© Drawn by T. Stott)

Full size image

6.5 Coming Home Can Be Hard

Educators must also consider how people feel and adapt back to normal life after a period away on a journey or residential programme. Allison et al. (2011) coined the term ‘expedition reverse culture shock’ (ERCS) and reported a range of different responses to returning to ‘home communities’ including a sense of isolation, extending lessons from the group, using the group as a compass for the future suggesting that educators using journeys have a responsibility to support participants through the transition post expedition as this is often where value reflections are particularly emphasised.

6.6 Genuine Learning?

A final challenge to outdoor journeys is convincing decision makers and people in authority of their value. Leaders and managers of schools, colleges, universities and voluntary organisations, who may be challenged to make the best use of their overstretched financial budgets, might argue that taking pupils/students on journeys doesn’t constitute ‘genuine’ learning. They might believe that they are just fun and don’t fit in and around neo-liberal agendas of education with a focus on numeracy, literacy, standardized testing? They are just optional ‘extras’ to the serious business of schools? We hope that having read this chapter, that you now understand the value, importance and benefits of journeys as an important ‘educational tool’. We hope that you would be able to make a robust argument to justify the inclusion of journeys in an education curriculum.

7 Conclusions

In this chapter we have outlined the use of journeys in outdoor and environmental education as a vehicle for learning. Journeys can have a variety of different rationales which can depend on culture and geographical location. Many school, college, university and voluntary organisation programmes give students the opportunity to undertake journeys or ‘expeditions’ which may be walking, cycling, canoeing or on horseback.

A growing body of research evidence has been accumulating over the past three decades which points to the short-term (months) and longer-term (40–70 years) benefits of participating in longer (2 weeks to 3 month) expeditions. The benefits include personal growth (upward, outward, inward, downward) and positively influencing mental toughness, GRIT and leadership to succeed and ability to work as part of a team. Over longer terms of 40+ years, gains include increased environmental awareness, an appreciation for nature and the outdoors improved planning and preparation, gratefulness and service, and a desire to transfer these benefits to others. Shorter journeys can still have important benefits. For example, hill-walking has health benefits arising from physical activity and exposure to nature, escape from everyday life pressures, to re-charge, and walking in groups can lead to beneficial feelings of social inclusion.

Finally, there are a number of challenges associated with using journeys as an educational tool. These include: time, cost, risk, environmental impact and expedition reverse culture shock. It is important that those working in this area are aware of these challenges and manage them appropriately.

Reflective Questions

  1. 1.

    Based on what you’ve read in this chapter, how might you design a journey to touch on the key benefits articulated in the research?

  2. 2.

    You are working as a teacher or instructor and your manager, who is responsible for the financial budget, says that there are too many risks and it’s too costly to take your pupils on the 3-day canoe journey that you had planned. Write down the argument you would make to justify the inclusion of such a journey in your pupils’ education curriculum, include details on connections to specific school subjects.

  3. 3.

    Drawing on the key ideas around environmental impact of journeys…think about a typical week in your life. Make a list of all the journeys you might make in that typical week: their purpose, the mode of transport and the distance. Then, for each journey, consider whether you could have made the journey in a less impactful way. If you could, what are the effects of making your journeys with lower environmental impact?

  4. 4.

    With a partner or in a small group split into two groups. One group lists reasons and ways to encourage more independent journeys, the other group lists ways to discourage them. Present to each other, discuss and come up with applications from the discussion.

  5. 5.

    Based on the ideas you have been reading about in this chapter, list as many ways as you can to make journeys more accessible to more people in society regardless of abilities and socio-economic status.

Recommended Further Reading

  • Allison, P., Stott, T. A., Felter, J., & Beames, S. (2011). Overseas youth expeditions. In M. Berry & C. Hodgson (Eds.), Adventure education (pp. 187–205). Abingdon: Routledge.

  • Huddart, D., & Stott, T. A. (2019). Outdoor recreation: Environmental impacts and their management. London: Palgrave-MacMillan.

  • Humberstone, B., Prince, H., & Henderson, K. A. (2017). Routledge international handbook of outdoor studies. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780815384052.