Abstract
This chapter engages with the subject of gender-based violence in the context of North Africa. The introductory section refers to several North African countries including Morocco, Egypt and Libya. However, further in the discussion, the analysis narrows the discussion down to Morocco and Egypt by clearly demonstrating the pervasiveness of gender-based violence in these two countries and how such pervasiveness has not been met by effective criminal accountability. Much has been written on the subject of gender-based violence across a number of North African countries. However, no analysis engages with the subject from the perspective of access to criminal justice. The analysis in this chapter addresses this scholarly gap by underscoring that despite the fact that some progress has been made in terms of legal reform in Egypt and Morocco, there is still a gap in criminal accountability for cases of gender-based violence. The chapter provides enlightenment into this accountability gap by establishing the link between deeply entrenched discriminatory social and religious attitudes on the one hand and access to justice on the other. Against this backdrop, the chapter concludes that eliminating gender-based violence in North Africa will require measures beyond legal reform. It recommends that measures geared towards a change in social attitudes as well as interpretation of Muslim religious texts within their proper context should rank high on the agendas of all North African countries.
Emma Charlene Lubaale would like to acknowledge funding from the National Research Foundation (Funding Grant to EC Lubaale-Grant no: 127504) towards the funding of research retreats that informed the development and conceptualisation of this edited book idea and the writing and revisions to all the chapter contributions in this edited volume as well as those in Volume II of this book. The funding and support of the Directorate of Research of Rhodes University is also acknowledged.
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Notes
- 1.
UN, MONUSCO, Gender and Violence (2016), https://monusco.unmissions.org/genre-et-violence.
- 2.
Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC), Directives en vue d’interventions contre la violence basée September 6, 2005, https://interagencystandingcommittee.org/system/files/legacy_files/GBV%20Guidelines%20French.pdf.
- 3.
UN, MONUSCO, Gender and Violence, https://monusco.unmissions.org/genre-et-violence.
- 4.
United Nations Déclaration on Elimination of all Forms of Violence against Women (1993).
- 5.
World Health Organisation, Violence against women, November 29, 2017, https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/violence-against-women.
- 6.
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women (1993), https://www.ohchr.org/FR/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/ViolenceAgainstWomen.aspx.
- 7.
African Committee of Experts on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, Agenda 2040: Fostering an Africa fit for children (2016) Aspiration 7; African Union Commission, Agenda 2063: The Africa We Want (2015) 2.
- 8.
General Recommendations Adopted by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, Eleventh session (1992), General Recommendation No. 19: Violence against Women, https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CEDAW/Shared%20Documents/1_Global/INT_CEDAW_GEC_3731_F.pdf.
- 9.
Ibid.
- 10.
Eléonore Abou Ez, LES pays d'Afrique du Nord et du Moyen-Orient sont les pires pour les droits des femmes, selon la Banque mondiale, France Info, March 1, 2019, https://www.francetvinfo.fr/monde/afrique/societe-africaine/les-pays-d-afrique-du-nord-les-pires-pour-les-droits-des-femmes-selon-la-banque-mondiale_3211763.html.
- 11.
Juliette Gaté, Women's Rights and Arab Revolutions, La Revue des droits de l'homme, November 7, 2014, https://journals.openedition.org/revdh/929?lang=en#citedby.
- 12.
Ibid. On stereotypes and the law, see also generally Lubaale Emma Charlene, ‘Confronting stereotypes as an entry point to realigning IAAF regulations with human rights and developments in Science’ 17 Gender and Behaviour, (2019): 14413–14432.
- 13.
Fatima Sadiqi, Les droits des femmes en Afrique du Nord au lendemain du printemps arabe, IEMED Yearbook, Secteurs stratégiques, Société et Culture, https://www.iemed.org/observatori/arees-danalisi/arxius-adjunts/anuari/anuari-2014/Sadiqi_Droits_femmes_Printemps_arabe_Annuaire_IEMed_2014.pdf/.
- 14.
Marguerite Rollinde, Maghreb: quelles stratégies féministes à l’œuvre, Genre en action, September 4, 2007, https://www.genreenaction.net/Maghreb-quelles-strategies-feministes-a-l-oeuvre.html.
- 15.
Naciri Rabéa, ‘Le mouvement des femmes au Maroc’’ 33 Nouvelles Questions Féministes (2014): 43–64.
- 16.
Fatema Mernissi, The Pride of Islamic Feminism in Modern Times—Obituary, Muslim Institute, https://musliminstitute.org/freethinking/gender/fatema-mernissi-pride-islamic-feminism-modern-times-obituary.
- 17.
Asma Lamrabet, Islam et femmes: Emergence de nouvelles voies de libération pour les femmes en islam, September 2014, http://www.asma-lamrabet.com/articles/l-emergence-de-nouvelles-voies-de-liberation-pour-les-femmes-en-islam/.
- 18.
Mernissi supra note 16.
- 19.
Zineb Maâdi, Al-Jassad al-unthawī wa-hulm al-tanmiyah, Casablanca: Le Fennec (2003).
- 20.
Asma Lamrabet, Femmes et hommes dans le Coran: quelle égalité? (2012).
- 21.
Ibid.
- 22.
See detailed discussion in Sect. 2.3 of this chapter.
- 23.
Lara Deramaix and Julien Moriceau, Quelle justice pour les femmes au Maroc? Analyse des parcours de justice, Avocats Sans Frontières, (2019) 65, https://www.asf.be/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/ASF-justice-femmes-Maroc-2019-6-2.pdf.
- 24.
PNUD Morocco, Gender Justice and The Law: Assessment of Laws Affecting Gender Equality and Protection against Gender-Based Violence, 2018, https://arabstates.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/Morocco%20Country%20Assessment%20-%20English_0.pdf.
- 25.
Martin Chave, Libye, La guerre par le viol 3/4, October 20 2018, https://www.notaweaponofwar.org/libye-la-guerre-par-le-viol-3-4/.
- 26.
Freedom House, Women’s Rights in the Middle East and North Africa (2010), www.freedomhouse.org.
- 27.
United Nations Human Rights, Integrating a Gender Perspective into Human Rights Investigations, Guidance and Practice, (2016) 39, https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/Publications/GenderIntegrationintoHRInvestigations.pdf.
- 28.
Joint Submission to the United Nations Universal Periodic Review in the 22nd Session of the UPR Working Group, The State of Libya Women’s rights, September 2014, https://www.upr-info.org/sites/default/files/document/libya/session_22_-_mai_2015/js3_upr22_lby_e_main.pdf.
- 29.
United Nations Population Fund, Prise en charge de la violence basée sur le genre dans les situations d’urgence, https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/GBV%20E-Learning%20Companion%20Guide_FRENCH.pdf.
- 30.
United Nations Population Fund, Morocco: Pulling Together to Protect Women's Rights: Programming to Address Violence against Women: Ten Case Studies, https://www.refworld.org/docid/469cd693c.html.
- 31.
International Planned Parenthood Federation, COVID-19 and the Rise of Gender-Based Violence, April 22, 2020, https://www.ippf.org/blogs/covid-19-and-rise-gender-based-violence; United Nations Development Programma, Gender-Based Violence and COVID-19, May 11, 2020, https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/librarypage/womens-empowerment/gender-based-violence-and-covid-19.html.
- 32.
Ibid.
- 33.
World Health Organisation, COVID-19 et violence à l’égard des femmes, Ce que le secteur et le système de santé peuvent faire, April 7, 2020, https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/331762/WHO-SRH-20.04-fre.pdf?ua=1
- 34.
See, e.g., Selimovic JM and Larsson DM, ‘Gender and Transition in Libya Mapping women’s participation in post-conflict reconstruction’ The Swedish Institute of International Affairs(2014): 1–33; Oussedik F, ‘Religion, Gender, and Violence in Algeria’ 6 Brown Journal of World Affairs (1996): 191–197; House PB, Assaulted and accused sexual and gender-based violence in Tunisia, Amnesty International (2015): 1–84; Naciri H, ‘Gender-based Violence in Morocco: Domestic Violence as a Case in Point’ 9 Kultūra Ir Visuomenė. Socialinių Tyrimų Žurnalas (2018): 51–66; Ambrosetti E, Amara NA and Condon S, ‘Gender-Based Violence in Egypt: Analysing Impacts of Political Reforms, Social, and Demographic Change’ 19 Violence Against Women (2013), https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1077801213486329.
- 35.
World Population Review, Egypt Population (2020), https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/egypt-population/.
- 36.
Home Office, Country Policy and Information Note Egypt: Women, (2019): 1–49 https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/810875/Egypt_-_Women_-_CPIN_-_v2.0__June_2019__external.pdf.
- 37.
Devries K, Mak JY, García-Moreno C, Petzold M, Child JC, Falder G, Lim S, Bacchus LJ, Engell RE, Rosenfeld L, Pallitto C, Vos T, Abrahams N and Watts CH, Global Health. The Global Prevalence of Intimate Partner Violence against Women (2013): 1527–1528, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23788730.
- 38.
World Economic Forum, The Global Gender Gap Report 2018: Egypt, December 17, 2018, http://reports.weforum.org/global-gender-gap-report-2018/data-explorer/#economy=EGY.
- 39.
Ibid.
- 40.
Thomson Reuters Foundation, The World’s Most Dangerous Megacities for Women, (2017), http://poll2017.trust.org/.
- 41.
Freedom House, Freedom in the world, (2019), https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2019/egypt.
- 42.
United Nations, Study on ways and methods to eliminate sexual harassment in Egypt, (2013), http://harassmap.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/287_Summaryreport_eng_low-1.pdf.
- 43.
Jadaliyya Reports, Sexual Violence against Women and the Increasing Frequency of Gang Rape in Tahrir Square and its Environs, (2013), https://www.jadaliyya.com/Details/28108.
- 44.
Home Office supra note 36, 1–49.
- 45.
Ibid.
- 46.
Kirollos Mariam, ‘The daughters of Egypt are a red line’ 24 Sur—International Journal on Human Rights, (2014): 137–153; Amnesty International, Egypt: Investigate attacks on women protesters, (2012), https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2012/06/egypt-investigate-attacks-women-protesters/.
- 47.
Ibid.
- 48.
Ibid.
- 49.
McRobie Heather, ‘Sexual violence and state violence against women in Egypt 2011–2014’ 7 CMI Insight (2014): 1–6.
- 50.
Chinkin Christine, ‘Sexual Harassment: An International Human Rights Perspective’ in MacKinnon Catharine and Siegel Reva (eds) Directions in Sexual Harassment Law (2003): 655.
- 51.
Home Office supra note 36, at 1–49.
- 52.
28 Too Many, Egypt: The law and FGM (2018),
https://www.28toomany.org/static/media/uploads/Law%20Reports/egypt_law_report_v1_(june_2018).pdf.
- 53.
Ibid., see also World Health Organisation, Understanding and addressing violence against women: Female genital mutilation (2012); 1–8.
- 54.
Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Country information report Egypt (2017),
https://dfat.gov.au/about-us/publications/Documents/country-information-report-egypt.pdf.
- 55.
BBC News, Morocco profile—Leaders, October 26, 2013, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-14121440.
- 56.
Ibid.
- 57.
Country Meters, Morocco Population (2020), https://countrymeters.info/en/Morocco.
- 58.
Ibid.
- 59.
Morocco World News, New Survey Shows High Rates of Violence Against Women in Morocco, May 15, 2019, https://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2019/05/273120/survey-high-rates-violence-women-morocco/.
- 60.
Klugman Jeni, Gender Based Violence and the Law, World Development Report (2017) 1.
- 61.
Ibid.
- 62.
Allam Nermin, ‘Smoke and mirrors: State-sponsored feminism in post-uprising Egypt,’ 86 Social Research: An International Quarterly (2019): 365–386.
- 63.
See e.g. the United Nations the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organised Crime (2002). This Protocol has an explicit definition of ‘human Trafficking’ thus providing states parties without national legislation on human trafficking a useful framework at the national level.
- 64.
Constitution of Egypt (2014) 93.
- 65.
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969) 26.
- 66.
Committee on Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, General Recommendations adopted by the Committee on Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (General recommendation No. 19: Violence against women (1992) 24; see also Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, General recommendation No. 35 on gender-based violence against women, updating general recommendation No. 19 (2017).
- 67.
Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, Concluding observations of the Committee.
on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women: Egypt, (2010), http://www.reproductiverights.org/sites/crr.civicactions.net/files/documents/CEDAW%20Concluding%20Observations%20Egypt.pdf.
- 68.
Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights of Women in Africa (2003).
- 69.
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (1998).
- 70.
Constitution of Egypt, 11.
- 71.
Ibid., Marginal note.
- 72.
See Articles 267, 268, 269, 289 and 242 of the Egypt Penal Code No. 58 of 1937 relating to the crimes of rape, sexual assault, sexual harassment and female genital mutilation.
- 73.
Mackinnon, cited in Kirollos supra note 46 at 140.
- 74.
28 Too Many supra note 52 at 1–12.
- 75.
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Rapport parallèle des ONG marocaines au quatrième rapport périodique du Gouvernement marocain sur la mise en oeuvre du Pacte International relatif aux Droits Economiques, Sociaux et Culturels, 2006–2012, https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CESCR/Shared%20Documents/MAR/INT_CESCR_CSS_MAR_21229_F.pdf.
- 76.
UN Femmes Maghreb, Le Maroc adopte le protocole facultatif à la CEDAW, 27 août 2015, https://maghreb.unwomen.org/fr/actualites-evenements/actualites/2015/08/op-cedaw-maroc.
- 77.
EUROMED Gender Equality Programme, National Situation Analysis Report: Women's Human Rights and Gender Equality, Promoting Equality between Men and Women in the Euro-Mediterranean Region (2008–2011), http://bnm.bnrm.ma:86/Reforme_de_la_constitution/EUROMED%20_%20Rapport%20national%20d'analyse%20de%20la%20situation%20_%20Rights%20human%20of%20women%20and%20equality%20between%20the%20sex.pdf.
- 78.
Constitution of Morocco July 1, 2011. Official Bulletin, 2011-06-17, No. 5952bis.
- 79.
EuroMed Rights, Morocco: Situation report on violence against women (2018) 1, https://euromedrights.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Factsheet-VAW-Morocco-EN-Mar-2018.pdf.
- 80.
Penal Code, Article 88-1 and article 404.
- 81.
Fadoua Benkhadda, How NGOs helped change Moroccan law on rapists marrying their victims, 7 février 2014, The Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/poverty-matters/2014/feb/07/ngo-change-morocco-rape-law.
- 82.
EuroMed Rights, supra note 79.
- 83.
Rapport analytique sur la situation des violences faites aux femmes et aux filles et des avancées réalisées au niveau du continent de l’Afrique, November 2018, https://knowledge.uclga.org/IMG/pdf/africities_rapport_analytique_vef_23.11.2018_.pdf.
- 84.
The Moudawana: Dahirs of November 22, December 18, 1957, January 25, February 20 and April 4,1958.
- 85.
Kamal Mellakh, De la Moudawwana au nouveau Code de la famille au Maroc: une réforme à l’épreuve des connaissances et perceptions ordinaires (2005–2006), http://journals.openedition.org/anneemaghreb/78.
- 86.
Ibid.
- 87.
Ibid.
- 88.
Lara Deramaix, Julien Moriceau, Quelle justice pour les femmes au Maroc ? Analyse des parcours de justice, (2019) 8, https://www.asf.be/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/ASF-justice-femmes-Maroc-2019-6-2.pdf.
- 89.
EuroMed Rights supra note 79.
- 90.
Law No. 103-13 on combating violence against women promulgated by Dahir No. 1-18-19 of 5 Jumada II 1439 (February 22, 2018); Bulletin Officiel No. 6688 of 21 Shawwal 1439 (July 5, 2018) 1384.
- 91.
Morocco: Submission to the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Relating to the Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of Women, 56th Session, by the Advocates for Human Rights, https://www.theadvocatesforhumanrights.org/uploads/morocco_esc_shadow_report_august_2015.pdf.
- 92.
Ibid.
- 93.
Ibid.
- 94.
Ibid.
- 95.
Murgue Bérénice, La Moudawana: les dessous d’une réforme sans précédent, Les Cahiers de l'Orient, 2011/2 (N° 102) 15–29, https://www.cairn.info/revue-les-cahiers-de-l-orient-2011-2-page-15.htm.
- 96.
Lara Deramaix and Julien Moriceau, Quelle justice pour les femmes au Maroc? Analyse des parcours de justice, (2019) 48, https://www.asf.be/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/ASF-justice-femmes-Maroc-2019-6-2.pdf.
- 97.
EuroMed Rights supra note 79, at 3. See also Lubaale on the chronic gaps in legal framework on prosecution of criminal offences in Africa. Lubaale Emma Charlene, Bridging the justice gap in the prosecution of acquaintance child sexual abuse: a case of South Africa and Uganda (PhD Thesis, University of Pretoria 2015); Lubaale Emma Charlene, ‘Admissibility of evidence presented by children in sex abuse prosecutions in Uganda: The case for reforms’ African Journal of Law and Criminology 5(2015): 1–15; Lubaale Emma Charlene, ‘The crime of attempted suicide in Uganda: the need for reforms to the law’ (2017)(4)(1) Journal of Law, Society and Development 1–19; Lubaale Emma Charlene, ‘Human rights reforms of criminal law in Africa’ in Addaney M, Nyarko M and Boshoff E (eds) Governance, Human Rights, and Political Transformation in Africa. Palgrave Macmillan (2020) 149–171.
- 98.
Lucy Lamble, UN Women report: Access to justice in Morocco, The Guardian, July 6, 2011, https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/jul/06/un-women-morocco-justice.
- 99.
Naciri Rebea, The women's movement and political discourse in Morocco, United Nations Research Institute for Social Development Geneva, 1–28 (1998), https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/148779/1/862525705.pdf.
- 100.
Naïma Chikhaoui, Surpasser des obstacles en matière d’égalité: le cas du Maroc, Quaderns de la Mediterrània, 2015, https://www.iemed.org/observatori/arees-danalisi/arxius-adjunts/qm22/94Quaderns_obstaclesFemmesMaroc_NChikhaoui.pdf.
- 101.
Ibid.
- 102.
International Commission of Jurists, Morocco: Remove Obstacles to Women’s and Girls’ Access to Justice for Sexual and Gender-Based Violence—New ICJ Report, June 28, 2019, https://www.icj.org/morocco-remove-obstacles-to-womens-and-girls-access-to-justice-for-sexual-and-gender-based-violence-new-icj-report/.
- 103.
Dahir No. 1-18-19 of 5 Jumada II 1439 (February 22, 2018) enacting Act No. 103-13 on combating violence against women.
- 104.
Laila Zerrour, La loi 103-13 entre en vigueur ce mercredi: Ce qui va changer, aujourdui.ma, 11 September 2018, https://aujourdhui.ma/societe/la-loi-103-13-entre-en-vigueur-ce-mercredi-ce-qui-va-changer.
- 105.
EuroMed Rights supra note 79, 2.
- 106.
Schlumpf E, ‘The Legal Status of Children Born out of Wedlock in Morocco’ 4 Electronic Journal of Islamic and Middle Eastern Law (2014): 1–26.
- 107.
Asmaa Bassouri, Maroc: la tourmente des mères célibataires, Contrepoints, April 17, 2018, https://www.contrepoints.org/2018/04/17/314254-maroc-la-tourmente-des-meres-celibataires.
- 108.
Ibid.
- 109.
General Assembly United Nations, National report submitted in accordance with paragraph 5 of the annex to Human Rights Council resolution 16/2, A/HRC/WG.6/27/MAR/1, February 20, 2017, https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G17/037/94/PDF/G1703794.pdf?OpenElement.
- 110.
Aïda Kheireddine, Pourquoi la nouvelle loi marocaine contre la violence faite aux femmes n’est pas suffisante pour changer le Status quo, Heinrich Böll Stiftung, April 13, 2018, https://ma.boell.org/fr/2018/04/13/pourquoi-la-nouvelle-loi-marocaine-contre-la-violence-faite-aux-femmes-nest-pas.
- 111.
Ibid.
- 112.
Safaa Monqid, Violence against Women in Public Spaces: The Case of Morocco (2012), http://journals.openedition.org/ema/3011.
- 113.
EuroMed Rights supra note 79 at 1.
- 114.
Selby Daniele, Outrage Over Egyptian Lawyer Saying It’s a ‘Duty To Rape’ Women (2017), https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/egypt-rape-violence-against-women-lawyer-tv/.
- 115.
Idang Gabriel, African cultures and values 16 Phronimon (2015): 97.
- 116.
See e.g. Section 39(2) of the Constitution of South Africa which provides that ‘when interpreting any legislation, and when developing the common law or customary law, every court, tribunal or forum must promote the spirit, purport and objects of the Bill of Rights.’.
- 117.
Home Office supra note 36, at 18.
- 118.
McRobie, Sexual violence and state violence against women in Egypt (2014) 1–49.
- 119.
Ibid.
- 120.
Kirollos supra note 46.
- 121.
Cairo Institute for Human Rights Studies, Circles of hell from Tahrir to Zagazig? April 4, 2017,
- 122.
United Nations Development Programme, Combatting Female Genital Mutilation in Egypt (2015), http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/fgminegypt/index.html.
- 123.
Ibid.
- 124.
Rashida Manjoo, Statement to the General Assembly, October 3, 2011, http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/documents/ga66/RAPPORT_on_VAW.PDF.
- 125.
United States of America Embassy-Egypt, 2018 Report on International Religious Freedom: Egypt (2018), https://eg.usembassy.gov/2018-report-on-international-religious-freedom-egypt/; EuroMed Rights: Egypt, Report on Violence against Women (2018),
https://euromedrights.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/201811-Gender-VAW-Factsheet-FR-PDF-MSH.pdf.
- 126.
The Constitution of Egypt (2014) 2. In terms of article 2 of the Egyptian Constitution ‘Islam is the religion of the state and Arabic is its official language. The principles of Islamic Sharia are the principle source of legislation’.
- 127.
Hajjar Lisa, ‘Religion, state power, and domestic violence in Muslim societies: A framework for comparative analysis’ 29 Law & Social Inquiry (2004): 1–38.
- 128.
Ibid.
- 129.
Ibid.
- 130.
Ibid.
- 131.
Ibid.
- 132.
Ibid.
- 133.
Ibid.
- 134.
Rahma Bourquia, Gender and the Reconfiguration of Moroccan Society (2015), http://books.openedition.org/cjb/1041.
- 135.
Ibid.
- 136.
Paul Pascon, cited by Hassan Rachik and Rahma Bourqia in Sociology in Morocco: Theory and Research (2011), http://journals.openedition.org/sociologies/3719.
- 137.
Ibid.
- 138.
Ibid.
- 139.
Rahma Bourquia supra note 134.
- 140.
Ibid.
- 141.
Dahir n° 1-04-22 of February 3,2004 promulgating law n° 70-03 on the Family Code. Official Gazette, 2005-10-06, n° 535.
- 142.
‘Video. A petition launched against a gynecologist who claims to understand rape’ H24 Info, June 12, 2020, https://www.h24info.ma/maroc/video-une-petition-lancee-contre-un-gynecologue-qui-affirme-comprendre-le-viol/.
- 143.
United States of America Embassy-Egypt, 2018 Report on International Religious Freedom: Egypt (2018), https://eg.usembassy.gov/2018-report-on-international-religious-freedom-egypt/.
- 144.
Bernoussi Nadia and El Maslouhi Abderrahim, Les chantiers de la bonne justice: Contraintes et renouveau de la politique judiciaire au Maroc, Revue française de droit constitutionnel (2012) 479–510, https://www.cairn.info/revue-francaise-de-droit-constitutionnel-2012-3-page-479.htm.
- 145.
Ibid.
- 146.
Ibid.
- 147.
Houria Alami M’chichi, Malika Benradi, Mohamed Mouaqit, Fatima Zohra Boukaïssi and Rabha Zeidguy, Le code de la famille, Perceptions et pratique judiciaire, (2007) 281, https://www.fes.org.ma/common/pdf/publications_pdf/code_famille/code_de_la_famille.pdf.
- 148.
Hajjar supra note 127 at 9.
- 149.
Ibid.
- 150.
Ibid.
- 151.
Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Establishment of an African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights 2004.
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Abourabi, Y., Lubaale, E.C. (2022). Criminal Accountability for Gender-Based Violence in North Africa: Beyond Legal Reforms. In: Lubaale, E.C., Budoo-Scholtz, A. (eds) Violence Against Women and Criminal Justice in Africa: Volume I. Sustainable Development Goals Series. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75949-0_8
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