Abstract
Violence against women and girls is pervasive around the world with one in every three females experiencing gender-based violence (GBV) in their lifetime. Consequently, the global community has made it a priority to eliminate all practices of GBV and acknowledged that in terms of the 1993 Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women (DEVAW) that violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men and women. The main international instrument in furthering women’s rights and eliminating all forms of discrimination against women and girls is contained in the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). This convention establishes an international bill of rights for women, as well as an agenda for action by State Parties to guarantee the enjoyment of those rights. The commitment to eradicate discrimination and GBV is also emphasised by the UN in their universal Sustainable Development Goals which aims to eliminate all forms of violence against women by 2030. At the regional level, the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa (Maputo Protocol) reiterates the importance of eradicating GBV and discrimination. For purposes of the chapter, South Africa and the DRC have been selected. As State Parties to the above-mentioned international and national conventions and protocols, these countries have committed themselves to enact, implement and monitor legislation addressing GBV at domestic levels respectively. In addition, to the aforesaid, both these countries experience cultural, social and traditional factors that may influence and possibly perpetuate the social acceptance of GBV. In this regard, it is submitted that the poor implementation of legislation and the failure of the criminal justice system to protect victims still have a huge impact on the high level of GBV cases in both countries. Thus, applying doctrinal research through the lens of feminist legal theory, this chapter reveals that the criminal justice system in both countries needs to be revisited. The chapter concludes with recommendations for a multi-sectorial approach to GBV.
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Notes
- 1.
Dartnall E and Jewkes R, ‘Sexual Violence Against Women: The Scope of the Problem’ 27 Best Practice & Research Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology (2012): 3–13.
- 2.
Nelson Mandela Foreword in World Report on Woman and Health (2002).
- 3.
WHO, Global and Regional Estimates of Violence Against Women, (2013); UNODC, Global Study on Homicide (2019).
- 4.
Interpersonal Violence, Global and Regional Estimates of Violence Against Women, WHO, 2013; Global Study on Homicide 2019, UNODC, (2019).
- 5.
European Institute on Gender Equality.
- 6.
Article 1 of Declaration of elimination of violence Against Women (1993).
- 7.
The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are 17 goals with 169 targets that all 191 UN Member States have agreed to try to achieve by the year 2030.
- 8.
Thirty-five percent of women worldwide have experienced either non-partner sexual violence or physical and/or sexual intimate partner violence (IPV) (WHO 2013), both manifestations of Gender-Based Violence (GBV).
- 9.
World bank, Ending Violence Against Women and Children. Global and Regional Trends in Women’s Legal Protection Against Domestic Violence and Sexual Harassment (2018).
- 10.
UNICEF, A Familiar Face: Violence in the lives of children and adolescent (2017).
- 11.
The United Nations Population Fund, Gender-Based Violence: What Do We Do (2020),
- 12.
Ibid.
- 13.
Ibid.
- 14.
Ibid.
- 15.
Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, Concluding observations on the eighth periodic report of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, UN doc. CEDAW/C/COD/8 (9 July 2019).
- 16.
The United Nations Population, gender-based violence (2020).
- 17.
South Africa ratified CEDAW on December 15, 1995, and the Maputo Protocol on December 17, 2004, whereas DRC ratified CEDAW on October 17, 1986, and Maputo protocol on November 25, 2005.
- 18.
SAHRC research brief: Unpacking the gaps and challenges in addressing gender-based violence in South Africa (April 2018)3. Home office, Country Policy and information Note Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC): Gender Based Violence Version 2, (September 2018).
- 19.
South Africa was ranked the highest country in Africa in progressing as far as gender equality and women’s rights are concerned. Statistics South Africa, Gender Statistics in South Africa, 2011. http://www.statssa.gov.za. Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act 6 of 2012 was passed to provide for effective prosecution and conviction of offenders.
- 20.
World Bank Group, Women, Business and the Law (2018).
- 21.
Carlo Koos, ‘Sexual Violence in Armed Conflicts: Research Progress and Remaining Gaps,’ 38 Third World Quarterly (2017): 19–36.
- 22.
Ibid.
- 23.
Cohen, Dara Kay and Elisabeth Wood, Is sexual violence during war exceptional- or a continuation of everyday violence? ISQ online (2016), http://www.isanet.org/publications/ISQ/posts/id/5239/issexual-violence-during-war-exceptional-or-a-continuation-ot-everyday-violence.
- 24.
SAHRC supra note 18. See also Meyiwa and others, ‘A Twenty-Year Review of Policy Landscape for Gender-Based Violence in South Africa’ (2017) Gender &behaviour; Madre Sofepadi, Gender based violence and discrimination against women and girls in the Democratic Republic of Congo: A report for CEDAW (2018).
- 25.
Ibid.
- 26.
Madre Sofepadi supra note 24.
- 27.
Danjibo N and Akinkuotu A, ‘Rape as a weapon of War against women and girls,’ 19 Gender & Behaviour (2019); Carlo Koos, ‘Sexual violence in armed conflicts: research progress and Remaining Gaps,’ 38 Third World Quately (2017): 19–36; Carolien Jacobs, ‘Seeking justice, experiencing the state: the criminal justice and real legal uncertainty, in the Democratic Republic of Congo,’ 50 The Journal of Legal Pluralism and Unofficial Law (2018): 280.
- 28.
Kharel, Doctrinal Legal Research (February 26, 2018), https://ssrn.com/abstract=3130525 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3130525.
- 29.
Meintjes and others Introduction to South African Law: Fresh Perspectives (2019).
- 30.
Ibid.
- 31.
Bowman GC, Schneider EM, ‘Feminist Legal Theory, Feminist Lawmaking, and the Legal Profession,’ 67 Fordham Law Review (1998): 249–271.
- 32.
Meintjes supra note 29.
- 33.
Bowman and Schneider supra note 31.
- 34.
Ibid.
- 35.
UDHR, Article 1.
- 36.
ICCPR, Article 2.
- 37.
South Africa ratified the ICCPR on December 10, 1998 and the ICESR on January 12, 2015 whilst the DRC ratified the ICCPR and the ICESR on November 1, 1976.
- 38.
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women Twentieth Anniversary 1979–1999, CEDAW Information Note 3. https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/cedaw20/history.htm.
- 39.
CEDAW, Article 1.
- 40.
CEDAW, Article 3.
- 41.
The General Recommendations 12–19 did, however, clarify that the Convention includes violence against women and makes detailed recommendations to States parties.
- 42.
Resolution 1994/1945[9], Global Norms and Standards: Ending Violence Against Women, https://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/ending-violence-against-women/global-norms-and-standards.
- 43.
The resolution strengthens the work of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action and provides a definition of violence against women that is widely used.
- 44.
DEVAW, Article 4.
- 45.
DEVAW, Article 1.
- 46.
Nicole Chalira and Leah Ndimurwino, ‘Violence Against Women: A Comparative Analysis Between Malawi and South Africa,’ 32 Speculum Juris (2018): 110.
- 47.
DEVAW, Article 4 (d).
- 48.
Optional Protocol of the CEDAW, Article 1.
- 49.
General recommendation No.19 recognising gender-based violence as discrimination within Article 1 of the UN Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (the Convention). Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, CEDAW/C/GC/35.
- 50.
For an elaborate discussion on the General Recommendation No.35, see Chinkin C, CEDAW General Recommendation 35 on violence against women is a significant step forward (2017), https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/wps/2017/09/06/cedaw-general-recommendation-35-on-violence-against-women-is-a-significant-step-forward/.
- 51.
African Charter, Article 2.
- 52.
Maputo Protocol, Article 2 (a).
- 53.
Maputo Protocol, Article 2 stipulates that ‘States Parties shall combat all forms of discrimination against women through appropriate legislative, institutional and other measures.’
- 54.
Maputo Protocol, Article 3.
- 55.
Maputo Protocol, Article 4 (2)(a) specifically provides that ‘States Partiesshall take appropriate and effective measures to enact and enforce laws to prohibit all forms of violence against women including unwanted or forced sex whether the violence takes place in private or public.’
- 56.
Maputo Protocol, Article 8 requires ‘States Partiesto ‘ensure effective access by women to judicial and legal services, including legal aid as well as support to local, national, regional and continental initiatives directed at providing women access to legal services, and to establish adequate educational and other appropriate structures with particular attention to women and to sensitise everyone to the rights of women.’
- 57.
Maputo Protocol, Article 1(J).
- 58.
ACWC, Article 3.
- 59.
Ashwanee Budoo, ‘Analysing the Monitoring Mechanism of the African women’s Protocol at the Level of the African Union,’ 18 African Human Rights Law Journal (2018): 58–74.
- 60.
African Charter, Article 45(2).
- 61.
Budoo supra note 59, 74.
- 62.
United Nations Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, its Causes and Consequences on Her Mission to South Africa, A/HRC/32/42/Add2(2016) paragraph 19.
- 63.
Sofepadi supra note 24.
- 64.
SAHRC supra note 18, 1.
- 65.
WHO, Report on Violence and Health (2002).
- 66.
Sofepadi supra note 24.
- 67.
United Nations Population funds, Gender Based Violence: What Do We Do (2020) https://www.unfpa.org/gender-basedviolence.
- 68.
SAHRC supra note 18, 3.
- 69.
Ministry for the Advancement of Women and the Integration for Women in Development, National Programme for the Promotion of Women’s Leadership in Political and Public Life in the Republic of Congo (2016), https://info.undp.org/docs/pdc/Documents/COG/Programme%20National%20Leadership%20féminin%20en%20politique%20en%20république%20du%20Congo.pdf.
- 70.
Meyiwa supra note 24, 8607.
- 71.
SAPS Annual Crime Statistics 2019/2020.
- 72.
Crime Situation in RSA - (April to March 2019–20), https://static.pmg.org.za/april_to_march_2019_20_presentation.pdf. The case includes rape, sexual assault, attempted sexual assault and sexual assault.
- 73.
SAPS Annual Crime Statistics 2019/2020.
- 74.
Ibid.
- 75.
Jewkes Penn-Kekana, Levin Ratsaka, and Schrieber, South Africa Demographic and Health Survey (2016).
- 76.
WHO, South Africa, http://www.unicef.org/south africa/hiv_aids_729.html.
- 77.
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1969); International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966); Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (1979); Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhumane, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (1987); Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989); Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (2008); Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1976); Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the involvement of children in armed conflict (2002).
- 78.
DEVAW, Article 4(a), requires State Parties to ‘Develop penal, civil, labour and administrative sanctions in domestic legislation to punish and redress the wrongs caused to women who are subjected to violence.’
- 79.
Šimonovi´c Dubravka, South Africa’s Still Long Walk to Free Women from the Shackles of Violence: The UN special rapporteur on violence against women, during her visit to South Africa (2015). The Domestic Violence Amendment Bill, The Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act Amendment Bill and The Criminal Matters Amendment Bill arrived at Cabinet in July 2020, took only 11 months as from executive drafting to tabling in the national legislatures.
- 80.
The Presidency of the Republic of South Africa: National Planning Commission National Development Plan 2030: Our future - make it work (2012) 43.
- 81.
Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (hereinafter referred to as ‘the Constitution’).
- 82.
Nice Nyemba, The impact of poverty on Children’s Rights in the Democratic Republic of Congo (LLM thesis, University of Pretoria 2015).
- 83.
Ibid., 22.
- 84.
Kandala Ngianga, Madungu Tumuaka, Emina James, Nzita KPD and Cappuccio Francesco, ‘Malnutrition among children under the age of five in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC): Does geographic location matter?’ Public Health, 11, (2011): 262.
- 85.
Sharan Burrow, ‘Violence against women in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo: whose responsibility? Whose complicity,’ International Trade Union Confederation, (2011).
- 86.
Williams C, ‘Explaining the Great War in Africa: How conflict in the Congo became a continental crisis,’ 2 The Fletcher Forum of World Affairs (2013): 83.
- 87.
Ibid., 81.
- 88.
Tholaine Matadi, The Realisation of Children’s Survival Rights in South Africa and the DRC: A Comparative Study (Phd Thesis, University of Zululand 2018).
- 89.
Erika Carlsen, ‘Rape and War in the Democratic Republic of the Congo,’ 21 Peace Review (2009): 474.
- 90.
Ibid.
- 91.
United Nations, Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary General on sexual violence in conflict: Democratic Republic of the Congo, Report of the Secretary General to the Security Council (S/2020/487) June 2020.
- 92.
Sharan Burrow, ‘Violence Against Women in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo: Whose Responsibility? Whose Complicity?’ International Trade Union Confederation (2011).
- 93.
United Nations supra note 62, 2.
- 94.
Ibid.
- 95.
Koos supra note 27, 1936.
- 96.
Ibid.
- 97.
Stacy Banwell, ‘Rape and Sexual Violence in the Democratic Republic Of Congo: A Case Study of Gender-Based Violence,’ 23 Journal of Gender Studies (2014): 45–58.
- 98.
Trenholm JE, Olsson P and Ahlberg BM, ‘Battles on women bodies: War, rape and traumatisation in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo’ 6 International Maternal and Child Health (2011): 152.
- 99.
Carlsen supra note 89, 476.
- 100.
Development Centre, Democratic Republic of Congo (2019).
- 101.
Banwell supra note 97, 49.
- 102.
Ibid., 46.
- 103.
Banwell supra note 97, 49.
- 104.
Banwell supra note 97, 46. The UN Security council listed 100 companies involved in this global market some of them are African-based companies but a significant number of transnational corporations from countries such as Belgium, Canada, Germany, Israel, the Netherlands, Switzerland, the UK and the US. See United Nations Security Council, Report of the panel experts on the illegal exploitation of natural resources and other forms of wealth of the DRC. 2003.
- 105.
Banwell supra note 97, 51.
- 106.
Ibid.
- 107.
Banwell supra note 97, 47.
- 108.
Carlsen supra note 89, 479.
- 109.
Banwell supra note 97, 53.
- 110.
Ibid.
- 111.
Ibid.
- 112.
Bercky Zihindula, Jabulani Makhubele and Janet Muthuki, ‘Challenges endured by women during the conflict related sexual violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo,’ 16 Gender and Behaviour (2018):1097.
- 113.
CEDAW, concluding observations, supra note 15.
- 114.
Development Centre, Democratic Republic of Congo (2019).
- 115.
2005 Constitution, section 9.
- 116.
2005 Constitution, section 11.
- 117.
2005 Constitution, section 10.
- 118.
2005 Constitution, section 12(2).
- 119.
2005 Constitution, section 12.
- 120.
2005 Constitution, section 12 (1) (c).
- 121.
The Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act 4 of 2000, that explicitly prohibits violence against woman; The Protection from Harassment Act 17 of 2011.
- 122.
The National Crime Prevention Strategy (NCPS) 1996 establishes crimes of violence against women and children as a national priority.
- 123.
Domestic Violence Act 118 of 1998.
- 124.
DVA, section 1.
- 125.
DVA, section 1.
- 126.
DVA, section 4(3).
- 127.
DVA, section 7(6).
- 128.
DVA, section 7(3) and (4).
- 129.
DVA, section 7(2).
- 130.
DVA, section 8.
- 131.
The Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act, 2007 (Act No. 32 of 2007) also referred to as the Sexual Offences Act (hereinafter referred to as ‘the SOA’).
- 132.
Chapter 2 of the SOA.
- 133.
Chapters 3 and 4 of the SOA.
- 134.
Ibid, Chapter 5.
- 135.
Ibid, Chapter 6.
- 136.
Ibid, Chapter 7.
- 137.
Draft Regulations Relating to Sexual Offences Courts: Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act, 32 of 2007.
- 138.
SAHRC supra note 18, 14.
- 139.
See status of ratification, supra note 17.
- 140.
Constitution of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Article 215, 2006 (hereinafter referred to as the ‘2005 Constitution’).
- 141.
It should be noted that practice shows that the country needs to enact implementation law (loi de mise en oeuvre).
- 142.
Treaties such as ICESCR ratified on November 1, 1976, ICCPR on November 1, 1976, ACHPR ratified on July 20, 1987 and signed on 23 July 1987.
- 143.
Adopted by the National Assembly on May 13, 2005, and approved by the Congolese people by the referendum of December 18 and 19, 2005. For more details, see Gathii JT ‘Popular authorship and constitution making: Comparing and contrasting the DRC and Kenya,’ 49 William & Mary Law Review (2008): 1110.
- 144.
See the preamble of 2005 Constitution.
- 145.
2005 Constitution, Article 16.
- 146.
2005 Constitution, Article 15.
- 147.
2005 Constitution, Article 14.
- 148.
- 149.
Child Protection Law, Title II of the 2009.
- 150.
Ibid, Title III.
- 151.
Ibid, Title IV.
- 152.
Child Protection Law, Articles 71–73 2009.
- 153.
Child Protection Law, Arts 84–93.
- 154.
Child Protection Law, Articles 94–101.
- 155.
Child Protection Law, Articles 102–131.
- 156.
Child Protection Law, Articles 132–142.
- 157.
Child Protection Law, Articles 143–146.
- 158.
Child Protection Law, Articles 146–159.
- 159.
Child Protection Law, Articles 160–162.
- 160.
Child Protection Law, Articles 169–184.
- 161.
Child Protection Law, Articles 185–194.
- 162.
Law 06/018 of July 20, 2006 amending and completing the Decree of January 30, 1940, Congolese Penal Code.
- 163.
Penal Code, Article 170.
- 164.
Penal Code, Article 171.
- 165.
Development Centre, Democratic Republic of Congo 2019, Social Institution and Gender Index (2019), http://www.genderindex.org.
- 166.
Penal Code, Article 167.
- 167.
Penal Code, Article 168.
- 168.
Penal Code, Article 169.
- 169.
CEDAW, concluding observations, supra note 15.
- 170.
See section 3 and section 4 of this chapter.
- 171.
CEDAW, Article 2.
- 172.
DEVAW, Article 4.
- 173.
SAHRC supra note 18, 14.
- 174.
2005 Constitution, section 7(2).
- 175.
For example, Van Eeden v Minister of Safety and Security 2003 (1) SA 389 (SCA); Rail Commuters’.
Action Group v Transnet LTD and Others (2004); S v Chapman 1997 (3) SA 341(SCA).
- 176.
2001 (4) SA 938 (CC).
- 177.
Mikateko Joyce Maluleke and Thuli Madonsela, ‘women and the law in South Africa: gender equality jurisprudence in landmark court decisions.’ Department of Justice and Constitutional Development, 5, (2004).
- 178.
SAHRC supra note 18, 14.
- 179.
SAHRC supra note 18, 12.
- 180.
It is estimated that the cost of GBV is between R24 and 42 billion annually. KPMG, 2015, too costly to ignore: The economic impact of gender-based violence in South Africa. See also South African Integrated Programme of Action Addressing Violence Against Women and Children (2013–2018): 16–20.
- 181.
United Nations Human Rights Committee, Report of the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences on her mission to South Africa, A/HRC/32/42/Add.2 (2016).
- 182.
Vetten L, ‘Violence against Women in South Africa,’ in Buhlungu S, Daniel J, Southall R and Lutchman J (eds) State of the Nation: South Africa (2007); SAHRC supra note 18, 13.
- 183.
Vetten L, ‘Show Me the Money: A Review of Budgets Allocated towards the Implementation of South Africa’s Domestic Violence Act’ 32 Politikon: South African Journal of Political Studies (2005): 277–295; SAHRC supra note 18, 13.
- 184.
UNHRC supra note 62, paragraph 7.
- 185.
UNHRC supra note 62, paragraphs 21–26.
- 186.
South African Integrated Programme of Action Addressing Violence Against Women and Children (2013–2018) 16–17; Crime against Women in South Africa: An in-depth analysis of the Victims of Crime Survey data (2018) 6.
- 187.
South African Integrated Programme of Action Addressing Violence Against Women and Children (2013–2018) 16–17.
- 188.
UNHRC supra note 62, paragraphs 17, 63.
- 189.
UNHRC supra note 62, paragraphs 41, 55.
- 190.
UNHRC supra note 62, paragraph 28.
- 191.
UNHRC supra note 62, paragraph 65.
- 192.
UNHRC supra note 62, paragraphs 7, 60–62; SAHRC supra note 18, 17.
- 193.
UNHRC supra note 62, paragraphs 69–80.
- 194.
SAHRC supra note, 18.
- 195.
UNHRC supra note 62 paragraph 82; South African Integrated Programme of Action supra note 186, 22.
- 196.
UNHRC supra note 62, paragraph, 16.
- 197.
South African Integrated Programme of Action supra note 186.
- 198.
Ibid.
- 199.
Including a range of existing and new measures aimed at complementing existing initiatives such as the Thuthuzela Care Centres, Sexual Offences Courts and other victim empowerment initiatives, the establishment of the Gender-Based Violence Command Centre by the Department of Social Development (DSD).
- 200.
UNHRC supra note 62.
- 201.
National Strategic Plan on Gender-Based Violence Shadow Framework (2019).
- 202.
Purpose of the National Strategic Plan on Gender-Based Violence.
- 203.
The National Strategic Plan on Gender-Based Violence (2020–2030).
- 204.
The National Strategic Plan on Gender-Based Violence (2020–2030).
- 205.
The National Strategic Plan on Gender-Based Violence (2020–2030).
- 206.
The National Strategic Plan on Gender-Based Violence (2020–2030) 42.
- 207.
The National Strategic Plan on Gender-Based Violence (2020–2030) 43.
- 208.
The National Strategic Plan on Gender-Based Violence (2020–2030) 51.
- 209.
Ibid, 57.
- 210.
Ibid, 56.
- 211.
President Ramaphosa’s address of the Nation, June 17, 2020.
- 212.
The National Strategic Plan on Gender-Based Violence (2020–2030).
- 213.
Ibid.
- 214.
South African Government, President Cyril Ramaphosa: South Africa’s response to the COVID-19 Coronavirus Pandemic, https://www.gov.za/speeches/president-cyril-ramaphosa-south-africa%E2%80%99s-response-covid-19-coronavirus-pandemic-17-jun-2020.
- 215.
Maputo Protocol, Article 8.
- 216.
RP0105/2017. The final judgement in this case is available in French only at https://trialinternational.org/ wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Arr%C3%AAt-finalKavumuCM.pdf.
- 217.
- 218.
Development Centre, Democratic Republic of Congo (2019).
- 219.
CEDAW, concluding observations, supra note 15.
- 220.
Development Centre supra note 218.
- 221.
MONUSCO, The Comprehensive Strategy on Combating Sexual Violence in the Democratic Republic of Congo, https://monusco.unmissions.org/en/comprehensive-strategy.
- 222.
Chalira and Ndimurwimo supra note 46.
- 223.
SAHRC supra note 18, 13.
- 224.
South African Government, President Ramaphosa address of the Nation June 17, 2020.
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Tholaine, M.M., Calvino, L.R. (2022). Addressing Gender-Based Violence Epidemic Through Criminal Justice: A Case Study of South Africa and the DRC. In: Lubaale, E.C., Budoo-Scholtz, A. (eds) Violence Against Women and Criminal Justice in Africa: Volume I. Sustainable Development Goals Series. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75949-0_3
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