Abstract
Educators from all corners of the world traveled to Germany to inspect schools, universities, and other educational institutions in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The German educational system’s reputation even spread as far as China. In particular, the German vocational education model and the writings of Georg Kerschensteiner (1854–1932) received considerable attention in China, and continue to exert a great fascination among contemporary Chinese educators. This chapter aims to uncover the roots of the Chinese interest in Kerschensteiner’s theories on civic education, manual work, and his blueprints for institutional reforms. Based on a close reading of previously neglected Chinese-, English-, and German-language sources, it discusses how the socio-political situation within China, as well as international developments, contributed to the dissemination of his works. Kerschensteiner’s ideas inspired thinkers across the political spectrum, who used his writings to support liberal, socialist, authoritarian, and even anarchist reform agendas. This study thus broadens our understanding of international exchange processes in the field of comparative education and education theory. Furthermore, it questions assumptions about 1949 as a watershed date in Chinese education thought.
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Notes
- 1.
Tang Shouqian, “Xie zai ‘Ertongnian yanlun teji’ zhiqian” [Preface to the “Special issue on discourses on childhood”], Fujian jiaoyu 2, no. 8 (1936):1.
- 2.
Ellen Key, The Century of the Child (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1909). For a critical discussion of Key’s pedagogical thinking see Sonja Sandomeer, Ellen Key: Anwältin des Kindes? Kritische Analyse ihres Werkes “Das Jahrhundert des Kindes” (Hamburg: Lit Verlag, 2006). The Chinese reception of Key’s education thought remains under-examined, but for Chinese reactions to her thoughts on love and marriage see Lynn Pan, When True Love Came to China (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2015), 154–69.
- 3.
This biographical account is based on Marie Kerschensteiner, Georg Kerschensteiner: Der Lebensweg eines Schulreformers (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1939); Diane Simons, Georg Kerschensteiner: His Thought and Its Relevance Today (London: Routledge, 2018); Markus Krebs, Georg Kerschensteiner im internationalen pädagogischen Diskurs zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts (Bad Heilbrunn: Klinkhardt, 2004), 11–17.
- 4.
Georg Kerschensteiner, Staatsbürgerliche Erziehung der deutschen Jugend (Erfurt: Karl Villaret, 1901), 8–9.
- 5.
Ibid., 50.
- 6.
Georg Kerschensteiner, Grundfragen der Schulorganisation (Leipzig: B.G. Teubner, 1912), 14–20.
- 7.
Georg Kerschensteiner, “Die Volksschule der Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika,” Süddeutsche Monatshefte, no. 1 (1911): 477–88.
- 8.
Kerschensteiner’s study of more than 300,000 children’s drawings from Munich’s primary and secondary schools was regarded as so impressive in scope and methodology that he was invited to lecture on his findings in London. His visit contributed to the growing recognition of his work in the field of vocational education in Great Britain. Krebs, Georg Kerschensteiner, 23; Georg Kerschensteiner, Die Entwicklung der zeichnerischen Begabung (Munich: Carl Gerber, 1905).
- 9.
Herrmann Röhrs, “Georg Kerschensteiner (1852–1932),” Prospects: The Quarterly Review of Comparative Education 23, nos. 3/4 (1993): 807.
- 10.
Chen Qiuling, “Kaixingsitaina zhiye jiaoyu sixiang yanjiu zongshu” [Comprehensive survey of research on Kerschensteiner’s education thought], Xin kecheng, no. 10 (2012): 173.
- 11.
Philipp Gonon, The Quest for Modern Vocational Education: Georg Kerschensteiner Between Dewey, Weber and Simmel (Bern: Peter Lang, 2009); Philipp Gonon, Arbeitsschule und Qualifikation: Arbeit und Schule im 19. Jahrhundert, Kerschensteiner und die heutigen Debatten zur beruflichen Qualifikation (Bern: Peter Lang, 1992); Philipp Gonon, “Berufsbildung und Globalisierung: Vom Kerschensteiner- zum Kompetenz-Modus,” in Berufsbildung zwischen Tradition und Moderne. Internationale Berufsbildungsforschung, ed. Matthias Pilz (Wiesbaden: Springer VS, 2019), 283–95; Krebs, Georg Kerschensteiner.
- 12.
Marianne Bastid, Educational Reform in Early Twentieth-Century China (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1988), ix; Paul Bailey, “Globalization and Chinese Education in the Early 20th Century,” Frontiers of Education in China 8, no. 3 (2018): 389–419; Paul J. Bailey, Reform the People: Changing Attitudes Towards Popular Education in Early Twentieth-Century China (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1990), 211–12.
- 13.
Vera Schwarcz, The Chinese Enlightenment: Intellectuals and the Legacy of the May Fourth Movement of 1919 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986); Federica Ferlanti, “The New Life Movement in Jiangxi Province, 1934–1938,” Modern Asian Studies 44, no. 5 (2010): 961–1000; Kate Merkel-Hess, The Rural Modern: Reconstructing the Self and State in Republican China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016); Barbara Schulte, “Unwelcome Stranger to the System: Vocational Education in Early Twentieth-Century China,” Comparative Education 49, no. 2 (2013): 226–41.
- 14.
See also Ruth Hayhoe and Marianne Bastid, eds., China’s Education and the Industrialized World (New York: Sharpe, 1987). The contributions to this volume showcase how more in-depth analysis of certain aspects of Chinese educational thought can provide new impetus to the field.
- 15.
A brief introduction to the translation of Pestalozzi’s works into Chinese has been given by Xiao Lang, “Peisitailuoqi zai jindai Zhongguo—Yi qi jiaoyu zhuzuo he sixiang de yijie wei zhongxin de kaocha” [Pestalozzi in modern China—A study on the translation and introduction of his main educational works and thought], Jiaoyu xuebao 6, no. 1 (2010): 82–92. For Montessori see Tian Jingzheng, Wan Xinjue, and Deng Yanhua, “Mengtaosuoli jiaoxuefa ji qi zai Zhongguo de chuanbo” [Montessori teaching methods and their spread in China],” Jiaoke. Jiaocai. Jiaofa 34, no. 6 (2014): 91–96.
- 16.
Jessica Ching-Sze Wang, John Dewey in China (New York: State University of New York Press, 2007); Barry Keenan, The Dewey Experiment in China: Educational Reform and Political Power in the Early Republic (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1977); Su Zhixin, “A Critical Evaluation of John Dewey’s Influence on Chinese Education,” American Journal of Education 103, no. 3 (1995): 302–25.
- 17.
Wang, John Dewey in China, 41.
- 18.
Ibid., 83–86.
- 19.
Gerhard Wehle, ed., Bibliographie Georg Kerschensteiner: Im Druck erschienene Schriften, Reden und Manuskripte, vol. 1 (Wiesbaden: Springer, 1987), 300.
- 20.
Krebs, Georg Kerschensteiner, 97–109.
- 21.
Irina Mchitarjan, Der russische Blick auf die deutsche Reformpädagogik: Zur Rezeption deutscher Schulreformideen in Russland zwischen 1900 und 1917 (Hamburg: Dr. Kovac, 1998), 110–38.
- 22.
Klaus Harney, Die preußische Fortbildungsschule (Weinheim: Beltz, 1980), 70–71; Klaus Harney, “Fortbildungsschulen,” in Handbuch der deutschen Bildungsgeschichte, 1800–1870, ed. Karl-Ernst Jeismann and Peter Lundgreen, vol. 3 (Munich: C.H. Beck, 1987), 281–92.
- 23.
Wolf-Dietrich Greinert, “The German Philosophy of Vocational Education,” in Vocational Education: International Approaches, Developments and Systems, ed. Linda Clark and Christopher Wynch (Hoboken: Taylor & Francis, 2012), 51.
- 24.
Chan Ming and Arif Dirlik, Schools into Fields and Factories: Anarchists, the Guomindang and the National Labor University in Shanghai, 1927–1932 (Durham, NC: Duke University, 1991), 24.
- 25.
The earliest reports in Chinese can be traced back to the translations of Akashi Takaichiro’s writings. Akashi Takaichiro, “Shiye buxi jiaoyulun” [On realia and continued education, part 1], Jiaoyu shijie, no. 79 (1904): 1–24; Akashi Takaichiro, “Shiye buxi jiaoyulun” [part 2], Jiaoyu shijie, no. 83 (1904): 25–42; Akashi Takaichiro, “Shiye buxi jiaoyulun” [part 3],” Jiaoyu shijie, no. 87 (1904): 43–56. I translated shiye jiaoyu here as “realia education,” as the text discusses the German Realschulen that combined practical and theoretical instruction.
- 26.
“Deguo buxi jiaoyu zhidu” [The German continuation school system], Jiaoyu shijie, no. 117 (1906): 1–26.
- 27.
Zhihou, “Kaishanxitainai zhi jiaoyushuo” [Kerschensteiner’s education thought, part 1], Jiaoyu zazhi 5, no. 10 (1914): 71–84; Zhihou, “Kaishanxitainai zhi jiaoyushuo” [part 2], Jiaoyu zazhi 5, no. 11 (1914): 85–96; Zhihou, “Kaishanxitainai zhi jiaoyushuo” [part 3], Jiaoyu zazhi 5, no. 12 (1914): 97–111.
- 28.
Krebs, Georg Kerschensteiner, 98.
- 29.
Zhihou, “Kaishanxitainai zhi jiaoyushuo” [part 3], 110; Zhihou, “Xiandai jiaoyu sichou” [Current education thought], Jiaoyu zazhi 7, no. 11 (1915): 75–76.
- 30.
Zhihou and Tianmin might be given either names or a pseudonym so that the identity of the authors could not be determined.
- 31.
Tianmin, “Gongmin jiaoyu wenti” [The question of civic education], Jiaoyu zazhi 5, no. 10 (1914): 115–22.
- 32.
Gu Shusen, “Deguo Minghengshi shiye buxi xuexiao zhi gaikuang” [Survey on vocational continuation schools in Munich, Germany], Zhonghua jiaoyujie 6, no. 2 (1917): 1–6; Jiang Menglin, “Peisitailuoqi shengchen Kaishanxitainai gongye jiaoyu zhi yanshuo” [Kerschensteiner’s speech on labor schools commemorating Pestalozzi’s birthday], Jiaoyu yu zhiye, no. 3 (1918): 1–5.
- 33.
Fan Bingqing and Zhu Yuanshan, Kaishansitainai shi jiaoyushuo [Kerschensteiner’s education thought] (Shanghai: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1916). The dates of Zhu Yuanshan’s birth and death are unknown.
- 34.
Jie Qi, “A History of the Present: Chinese Intellectuals, Confucianism and Pragmatism,” in Inventing the Modern Self, ed. Thomas S. Popkewitz (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 256.
- 35.
See the contributions by Sabiha Bilgi, Seckin Özsoy, and Noah W. Sobe in Thomas S. Popkewitz, ed., Inventing the Modern Self and John Dewey: Modernities and the Traveling of Pragmatism in Education (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005).
- 36.
Krebs, Georg Kerschensteiner, 93.
- 37.
Wang Wenpei, “Minxiangshi buxi xuexiao zhi zuzhifa—Kaishansitainai yanshuoci” [The organizational structure of Munich’s continuation schools—Speech by Kerschensteiner], Jiaoyu yu zhiye, no. 10 (1918): 1–13. The English original was published as Georg Kerschensteiner, “The Organization of the Continuation School in Munich,” in Three Lectures on Vocational Training (Chicago: The Commercial Club of Chicago, 1911), 17–29.
- 38.
The dates of Cooley’s birth and death are unknown.
- 39.
Edwin G. Cooley, “Zhiye jiaoyulun” [On Vocational Education, part 1], Jiaoyu zazhi 7, no. 2 (1915): 9–20; Edwin G. Cooley, “Zhiye jiaoyulun” [Part 2], Jiaoyu zazhi 7, no. 3 (1915): 21–30; Edwin G. Cooley, Zhiye jiaoyulun [On Vocational Education], trans. Zhu Jingkuan (Shanghai: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1916).
- 40.
Harvard Graduate School of Education, “Paul Henry Hanus, 1855–1941,” accessed March 12, 2020, https://www.gse.harvard.edu/about/history/deans/hanus.
- 41.
Paul Henry Hanus, “Technical Continuation Schools of Munich,” The School Review 13, no. 9 (1905): 678–83; Han Nashi [Paul H. Hanus], “Menxincheng zhi shiye jixu xuexiao” [Munich’s vocational continuation schools),” trans. Gu Zhaolin, Jingshi jiaoyubao, no. 41 (1917): 9–17.
- 42.
Tian Haiyang, “Min chu gongmin jiaoyu xingqi ji sixiang de duanru yu chuanbo” [The rise of civic education and its introduction and dissemination in the early Republican period),” Qiusuo, no. 10 (2011): 233–34.
- 43.
Suzanne Pepper, Radicalism and Education Reform in 20th Century China: The Search for an Ideal Development Model (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 61.
- 44.
Michael Knoll, “Dewey versus Kerschensteiner: Der Streit um die Einführung der Fortbildungsschule in den USA 1910–1917,” Pädagogische Rundschau 47, no. 2 (1993): 131–45.
- 45.
Wang Wenpei, “Duwei boshi duiyu shiye jiaoyu zhi yijian” [Dr. Dewey’s views on vocational education], Jiaoyu congkan, no. 1 (1919): 1–4.
- 46.
Bailey, “Globalization and Chinese Education,” 413.
- 47.
Barry Keenan, “Educational Reform and Politics in Early Republican China,” Journal of Asian Studies 33, no. 2 (1974): 225. For the education reforms of 1922 see also Margo S. Gewurtz, “Social Reality and Educational Reform: The Case of the Chinese Vocational Education Association 1917–1927,” Modern China 4, no. 2 (1978): 162–63.
- 48.
Li Huaxing, Minguo jiaoyushi [The history of education of the Republican period] (Shanghai: Shanghai jiaoyu chubanshe, 1997), 133.
- 49.
Gu Shusen, “Duiyu gaige xianxing xuezhi zhi yijian” [Views on reforming the current education system], Jiaoyu zazhi 12, no. 9 (1920): 1–3. I adopted the term “civic republicanism” from Culp, which I believe to be more fitting than Barry Keenan’s “spirit of democratic education.” Robert Culp, “Synthesizing Citizenship in Modern China,” History Compass, no. 5/6 (2007): 1838; Keenan, “Educational Reform and Politics,” 225. Chinese sources only refer to republican (gongheguo), not “democratic” (such as minzhu) principles. Hence it is difficult to infer the authors’ understanding of democracy.
- 50.
Gu Shusen, “Duiyu gaige xianxing xuezhi,” 4–7.
- 51.
Culp, “Synthesizing Citizenship,” 1837; Robert Culp, Articulating Citizenship: Civic Education and Student Politics in South-Eastern China, 1912–1940 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 4.
- 52.
John Dewey, Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1916), 101.
- 53.
See, for example, Daozhi, “Deguo zhi buxi jiaoyu” [German continuation education], Jiaoyu zazhi 15, no. 5 (1922): 7–9.
- 54.
Jiang Menglin, “Peisitailuoqi shengchen,” 1–5; He Zhifang, “Jiang Menglin zaoqi zhiye jiaoyu sixiang yanjiu” [Study on Jiang Menglin’s early vocational education thought], Cizhi, no. 11 (2016): 16–17.
- 55.
Bailey, Reform the People, 208.
- 56.
A summary of the criticism continuation schools and vocational schools faced can be found in: Xiong Zhugao, “Shishi zhiye jiaoyu shi suode de ji ge shibai yuanyin he lixiang de gaige fangfa” [Several reasons for the failure of implementing vocational education and ideal reform measures], Jiaoyu zazhi 17, no. 1 (1925): 1–6.
- 57.
Jin Xueyan, “Jindai jiaoyu mingren shenghuo shi: (Jiu) Kaixinsitainai Korrchensteiner [sic]” [Biographies of modern educators: Nine, Kerschensteiner], Jinxiu banyuekan 1, no. 10 (1932): 19–20.
- 58.
Kaishanxitainai [Kerschensteiner], “Weilai zhi xuexiao” [The school of the future), ed. and trans. Yu Zhen, Jiaoyu zazhi 12, no. 2 (1920): 1–12.
- 59.
There are a number of English terms that have been used to translate the German term Arbeitsschule , including activity school, labor school, and industrial school. In Chinese, the terminological variety within the labor education movement was even broader, ranging from qinlao jiaoyu, laozuo jiaoyu, and laodong jiaoyu to gongzuo jiaoyu. A thorough discussion of the different conceptualizations of Kerschensteiner’s conception of Arbeitsschule , as reflected in this differing terminology, would be fruitful but goes beyond the scope of this study.
- 60.
Georg Kerschensteiner, The Idea of the Industrial School, trans. Rudolf Pintner (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1913), 56; Ralf Koerrenz, Annika Blichmann, and Sebastian Engelmann, “Georg Kerschensteiner and the Industrial School,” in Alternative Schooling and New Education: European Concepts and Theories, ed. Ralf Koerrenz, Annika Blichmann, and Sebastian Engelmann (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018), 40.
- 61.
See, for example, Tianmin, “Qinlao jiaoyulun” [The theory of labor education], Jiaoyu zazhi 7, no. 1 (1915): 8; Jiang Jingsan, “Laodong jiaoyu xuezhe Kaishansitaila de sixiang” [The thought of labor education scholar Kerschensteiner], Jiaoyu zazhi 22, no. 1 (1930): 21–33; Chen Biao, “Kaishansitaila de laodong jiaoyuguan” [Kerschensteiner’s labor education thought], Guoli laodong daxue sanrikan, no. 5 (1930): 2–3; Jin Rongxuan, “Zuijin Deguo de laodong jiaoyu xueshuo yu laodong xuexiao zuzhi” [Recent German theories on labor education and the organization of labor schools], Jiaoyu zazhi 23, no. 2 (1931): 61–72.
- 62.
Kumkum Bhattacharya, Rabindranath Tagore: Adventure of Ideas and Innovative Practices in Education (Cham: Springer, 2014), 51.
- 63.
Merkel-Hess, The Rural Modern, 55–79.
- 64.
Tao Zhixing [Tao Xingzhi], “Zhongguo jiaoyu de gaizao” [Chinese education reform], Pudong zhongxue qikan, no. 2 (1929): 34.
- 65.
Hubert O. Brown, “Tao Xingzhi: Progressive Educator in Republican China,” Biography 13, no. 1 (1990): 22.
- 66.
Chan Ming and Dirlik, Schools into Fields and Factories, 16.
- 67.
Bailey, “Globalization and Chinese Education,” 409–10.
- 68.
Gonon, The Quest for Modern Vocational Education, 92.
- 69.
Röhrs, “Georg Kerschensteiner,” 814.
- 70.
Mchitarjan, Der russische Blick, 111. See also Irina Mchitarjan, “John Dewey and the Development of Education in Russia before 1920—Report on a Forgotten Reception,” Studies in Philosophy and Education 19 (2000): 112–13.
- 71.
Mchitarjan, Der russische Blick, 110–38.
- 72.
Pawel Blonski, “Was ist die ‘Arbeitsschule’? (1919),” in Transformation und Tradition in Ost und West, ed. Artur Meier, Ursula Rabe-Kleberg, and Klaus Rodax (Opladen: Leske & Budrich, 1997), 166–67.
- 73.
Li Huafang, “Laozuo jiaoyu yu Zhongguo” [Labor education and China], Hebei liu Dong niankan, no. 1 (1934): 119–20.
- 74.
Krebs, Georg Kerschensteiner, 101–2. Krebs falsely assumed that the work was first translated into Chinese in 1930.
- 75.
Qixiangsitaiyin [Kerschensteiner], Jiaoyujia de jingshen [The soul of the teacher] (Shanghai: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1926).
- 76.
Zaitian, “‘Gongzuo xuexiao yaoyi’ ji qi zuozhe” [“The concept of labor schools” and its author], Xin beichen 2, no. 4 (1936): 390.
- 77.
Gu Zhaolin, “Jiaoyubu duxue Gu Zhaolin xiansheng zai ben yuan jiang ruhe fuxing Zhonghua minzu” [The ministry of education’s school inspector Gu Zhaolin gave a talk at this school on how to revitalize the Chinese people], Bingzhou xueyuan yuekan 1, no. 7 (23).
- 78.
Gonon, The Quest for Modern Vocational Education, 20. In a letter from 1927, Kerschensteiner explicitly criticized the fascist Italian regime, yet because he died the year before Hitler seized power in Germany, we can only speculate about the attitude Kerschensteiner would have adopted towards Nazi rule. Georg Kerschensteiner, June 20, 1927, Document 5, Universitätsarchiv Innsbruck, https://www.uibk.ac.at/universitaetsarchiv/politische-dokumente-aus-dem-universitaetsarchiv/.
- 79.
Yang Rongchun, “Ziben zhuyi jiaoyu lilun tixi tansuo” [An exploration of the theoretical system of capitalist education], Xueshu yanjiu, no. 4 (1926): 75–84.
- 80.
Zhonghua shuju cihai bianjisuo, ed., “Kaixingsitaina” [Kerschensteiner], in Cihai shixingben—Wenhua jiaoyu [Cihai trial version, culture and education), vol. 7 (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1961), 40; Zhonghua shuju cihai bianjisuo, ed., “Laodong jiaoyu” [Labor education], in Cihai shixingben—Wenhua jiaoyu, vol. 7 (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1961), 3.
- 81.
Ling Xicheng, “Women he zichan jieji fan’ai jiaoyu sixiangde fenqi” [The difference between our and the bourgeois education of love], Renmin jiaoyu, no. 3 (1964): 29–37; “Zichan jieji jiaoyujie yanlun zhailu” [Excerpts from bourgeois educators’ statements, part 1], Renmin jiaoyu, no. 3 (1964): 37–39; “Zichan jieji jiaoyujie yanlun zhailu” [Part 2], Renmin jiaoyu, no. 4 (1964): 20–22. Whether by oversight or intentionally, Kerschensteiner’s quotes are listed without further comment and hence are more of a stimulating reading rather than a textual criticism.
- 82.
Mao Weiran, Zhongguo jindai ge pai jiaoyu sixiang yu jiaoxue fangfa jianshi [A brief history of the different schools of education thought and teaching methods in modern China] (Chengdu: Sichuan jiaoyu chubanshe, 1987), 90.
- 83.
Min Jie, “20 shiji 80 niandai yilai de Zhongguo jindai shehuishi yanjiu” [Chinese research on modern Social History since the 1980s], Jindaishi yanjiu, no. 2 (2004): 211–12; Xu Yipeng, “Guanyu dangqian jiaoyuxue yanjiu zhong de ji ge wenti” [Several questions concerning recent research in pedagogy], Dongbei shifan daxuebao—Zhexue shehui kexueban, no. 2 (1984): 75.
- 84.
Zhao Weiping, “Kaixingsitaina de jixu jiaoyu lilun chushen” [Exploring Kerschensteiner’s theory of continued education], Hangzhou daxue xuebao—Zhexue shehui kexueban 18, no. 3 (1988): 136.
- 85.
See, for example, Liu Jie, “Kaixingsitaina de zhiye jiaoyu sixiang shuping” [Review of Kerschensteiner’s vocational education thought], Jiaoyu pinglun, no. 3 (1992): 56–58.
- 86.
Kaixingsitaina [Kerschensteiner], Kaixingsitaina jiaoyu lunzhuxuan [Kerschensteiner’s selected educational works], ed. Zheng Huiqing (Beijing: Renmin jiaoyu chubanshe, 2003). This translation deviates in several respects from earlier translations, for example, by translating “staatsbürgerliche Erziehung” (civic education) as guomin jiaoyu, not gongmin jiaoyu, as was the general convention during the Republican period.
- 87.
Wei Xiaofeng, Zhang Minzhu, and Gu Yueqi, “Deguo ‘shuangyuanzhi’ zhiye jiaoyu moshi de tedian ji qishi” [Characteristics and lessons of the German vocational education model of a ‘dual track system’], Guojia jiaoyu xingzheng xueyuan xuebao, no. 1 (2010): 83, 92–95.
- 88.
Ehrenhard Skiera, Erziehung und Kontrolle: Über das totalitäre Erbe in der Pädagogik im “Jahrhundert des Kindes” (Bad Heilbrunn: Klinkhardt, 2018), 16–17.
- 89.
Kerschensteiner, The Idea of the Industrial School, x.
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Rudolph, H. (2021). Raising Children, Educating Citizens: Chinese Readings of the German Pedagogue Georg Kerschensteiner. In: Cho, J.M. (eds) Sino-German Encounters and Entanglements. Palgrave Series in Asian German Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73391-9_7
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