Biodiversity

Abstract

There are several aspects of biodiversity distributed worldwide. Some of them are widespread, while others are few due to the existing ecosystems. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, where diverse terrain properties exist, is characterized by defined climate and topography, and this in turn created diverse ecosystems influenced mainly by the arid climate, desert and mountainous, as well as the remarkable littoral elements. The existed biodiversity in NEOM Region can be described as “unique” because the ecosystems there are rarely found elsewhere and even the level of diversity is high, because the region contains abrupt topographic aspects and located dominantly between the desert and the sea. Nevertheless, the biodiversity and the existing ecosystems in NEOM Region have not studied in depth, but these must be well identified, notably that the region is being prepared to be a global hub. The highlight on the biodiversity, including all biological components in NEOM Region, will be a supportive tool for the SLM. Therefore, the smart orientation of biodiversity will attract people, and then it will add a significant value to the better use of the ecosystem in the region. This chapter will highlight the main components of biodiversity in NEOM Region. This was obtained depending on the available data sources as well as investigated elements of biodiversity aiming to reach preliminary picture on the subject matter.

7.1 Introduction

Among Earth’s biosphere, including lithosphere hydrosphere and atmosphere, there is a thick layer of approximately one kilometer where about 50 million species of animals, plants and micro-organisms live, and only 1.4 million of them were recognized. All these species are adapted to live in defined ecology which can be on mountain crests to deep marine water and from polar ice regions to deserts.

The biological diversity has been named as “biodiversity” by Walter Rosen in 1986 (UNEP 1995). Thus, biodiversity involves three major types: diversity within species (i.e. genetic diversity), diversity between species (i.e. species diversity) and diversity between ecosystems (i.e. ecosystem diversity).

7.1.1 Concepts

The diversity in living organisms and all biological elements is a normal life condition that always exists, but it differs by regions and at different levels, and this diversity is changeable in space and time, as well as the influencers, derivers and sources are tremendous. Therefore, biodiversity is everywhere in territorial and marine ecological systems, at different scales and speed of change. Thus, the virtual omnipresence of life on Earth is seldom appreciated because the largest number of organisms are too small (<5 cm) where they are sparse, ephemeral, or cryptic, and invisible to the unaided human eye.

There are many definitions for biodiversity, which is a term lunched in 1980. Thus, Swingland (2001) in Encyclopedia of Biodiversity defined biodiversity as “an attribute of an area; certainly refers to the variety within and among living organisms, assemblages of living organisms, biotic communities, and biotic processes, whether naturally occurring or modified by humans”. Hence, it is represents the variability in the living organisms from whether the terrestrial or marine environment, and this includes variability within species, between species, and of ecosystems.

Biodiversity represents the basis of ecosystems by introducing a number of services that affect mankind life. It may contribute directly by living, regulating, and entertainment services or indirectly by the naturally induced services, as follows:

• Vital living services such as water, food, fiber and timber.

• Regulated services such as the adjustment of climatic condition, flood regime, disease spread and disappear, waste disposal, and regulating water quality.

• Entertainment services such as recreation, and promenade and enjoying nature.

• Naturally-induced services such as the formation of soil material, photosynthesis process, and nutrient cycling.

Therefore, the value of biodiversity is represented mainly by serving constituents of human well-being, including security, basic material for a good life, health, good social relations, and freedom of choice and action (Sarukhán and Whyte 2005).

The obtained studies on the changes in the economic value related to changes in biodiversity, such as forest fire, soil pollution, draining of wetlands, and wood log; concluded that the total economic cost of ecosystem conversion is significant and to sometimes it exceeds the benefits of the habitat conversion.

7.1.2 Influencers on Biodiversity

The change in biodiversity and ecosystem services is controlled by indirect and direct influencers. Thus, five indirect influencers can be illustrated and they are handled by human. These are:

• 1. Demographic: The increased population rise the consumption per capita and this increases loads and pressure on the ecosystems and biodiversity.

• 2. Economic: The system of trade and industry across the world (global economic activity) increased about seven times between 1950 and 2000, and expected to increase 4 times in 2050 (INEGI 2020). This will cause destruction and deterioration in many aspects of biodiversity.

• 3. Socio-political: The changing in governmental regulations create in consistent forms of management, notably the adaptive management, approaches.

• 4. Cultural: The cultural aspects play a major role in the ethical behavior towards natural resources and thus the biodiversity.

• 5. Scientific and technological: knowledge mapping and dissemination increase the efficiency in resource use; besides scientific knowledge provides the tool to increase exploitation of resources.

There are direct influences of biodiversity loss and change in ecosystem services. They ate governed by the region where they occur (Fig. 7.1). The most important direct influencers are:

Fig. 7.1

Direct influencers on biodiversity loss and change in ecosystem services in different regions (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005)

• 1. Habitat change: This includes the changes in land use, changes in water bodies and green cover, as well as loss of coral reefs, and damage to sea floors.

• 2. Climate change: It involves the remarkable changes an oscillations in the climatic conditions and its impact on different ecosystems.

• 3. Invasive alien species: These are plants or animals that are introduced by man, accidentally or intentionally, outside of their natural geographic range into an area where they are not naturally present.

• 4. Overexploitation of species: It refers to harvesting a renewable resource to the point of decreasing returns. Thus, overexploitation may result resource destruction, including extinctions.

• 5. Pollution: It has many aspects (e.g. poison soils) that harmful to plants, animals and human as well. For example, the toxic chemicals that accumulate in top predators make some species unsafe to eat.

7.2 Factors on Biodiversity in NEOM Region

As mentioned previously, no studies have been done on biodiversity and ecosystem specifically for NEOM Region, except studies done on Tabuk Province/or the surrounding. It is utmost important to highlight on the existing biodiversity and ecosystems in this region as an additional component for adopting it as an area with remarkable ecologies. This would make it an attracting environment for people from different parts of the world.

NEOM Region is almost a bare area where water and wet soil are scarce, and this has been reflected on the little abundance of ecosystem, notably the flora. However, there are many factors controlling the existence and changing regime of biodiversity and the existing ecosystems (terrestrial and marine). These factors act at different levels of impact and even the time of influencing is also uneven. In addition, some of these factors may play an opposite role on biodiversity; for example, warm weather is harmful for some plant species, but it is also favourable for others and so on.

There are five main factors, in NEOM Region, controlling the biodiversity and ecosystems. These are:

7.2.1 Habitat

This represents the natural environment for many species where there species and organisms where they assure the presence of food, protection and mates for reproduction. All these habitats represent biogeographic units that control the distribution of life regime of different species, notably the flora and fauna. Hence, uneven biogeographic units create different species, like the case of NEOM Region.

For NEOM Region, there are diverse habitats occurred largely within the identified geomorphologic units (i.e. plateau, mountain ridges, coastal plain, and valleys). They exist as large-scale habitats including: mountains, desert, dunes, wadis, rocky outcrops, salt pans (sabkhas), coastal plain, tidal flats, littoral zone and many other habitats. Also, these are small-scale habitats which are included among the large-scale ones, such as: crests, gullies, caves, rock pockets, wetlands, soil intrusions, beach gravel, marine terraces, sandy sea floor, etc., which are dominant habitats in NEOM Region.

7.2.2 Climate

The climate of NEOM Region is distinguished by the topographic setting of the region where coastal plains extend at the foot slopes of mountain ridges in which the latter gradationally tilted eastward. This in turn creates a diverse climatic zone over different topographic units. Hence, the average rainfall rate is about 57.5 mm/year, but it ranges between 11 and 412 mm, and the average temperature is 22.5 °C, where the maximum reaches 44 °C and minimum 9 °C; in addition the area is known by high humidity since it is bordered from west and south by the sea.

Therefore, the distribution of biodiversity of animal and plant species is totally controlled by these topographic-induced climatic differentiation, and many of plant species for example are found with specific localities, but totally disappear in others.

7.2.3 Surface Materials

NEOM Region is characterized by intensive structures and tectonic movements which are reflected on the diverse lithological characteristics and distribution; however, surface materials (rocks and soil) are found with tremendous types and aspects. These materials play a significant role in the distribution of plant species (e.g. soil-related flora), notably the region contains bare rock (e.g. consolidated, friable, etc.), sand dunes, alluviums and detrital deposits, salty soil.

In addition, these materials make the region with active surficial processes, such as erosion and mass movement, which are also controlling the biodiversity and ecosystems. Figure 7.2 shows an example of active surficial processes in NEOM Region.

Fig. 7.2

Example of active surficial processes in NEOM Region where sand waves of different types (evidenced by their colour) exist

7.2.4 Characteristics of Littoral Zone

The characteristics of the littoral zone has several aspects including mainly the shoreline characteristics and materials, as well as seawater properties. In this respect, shoreline morphology (e.g. straight, irregular, curved, bay, etc.) is important as well as water depth and the located materials (beach sand, rocky each, gravel, etc.). In addition, the chemical and physical properties (e.g. salinity, hardness, density, DO, etc.) of seawater have significant role in the distribution and types of marine species. In addition, the physical processes occur in the sea are essential components in the aspect biodiversity and the marine ecosystems, and this includes, for example, sea currents, upwelling, sedimentation, sediments transportation, etc.

7.2.5 Human Interference

Even though human is a part of biodiversity, but often he acts on the ecosystems in different ways. Thus human influences the biodiversity at different dimensions. In this respect, the anthropogenic interference is always considered whether for optimal or unfavourable ones.

Other than the necessary involvement, there is no remarkable human interference observed in NEOM Region. Thus, except the coastal zone, there is very few number of human settlements in the largest part of NEOM Region, and even in the coastal zone the existing ones are still few. Hence, the impact of human on the ecosystem of NEOM Region can be considered as negligible.

7.3 Geography of Terrestrial Biodiversity

As described in different studies, Tabuk Province (including NEOM Region) has a variety of plant and animal species forming a typical biodiversity and unique ecosystems. Their abundance and distribution are still undefined, notably in the rugged and remote areas due to the inaccessibility to reach these areas.

The utility of these species is still limited and can be considered as undiscovered. This is due to the reason that the region still is characterized by very low population density, and thus limited human activities, and no concerns are given to the region so far.

The inventory of biodiversity in NEOM Region, as illustrated in this document, was carried out depending on the available references as well as on field observations. Therefore, it can be considered as a preliminary assessment for the types and distribution of plant and animal species in this region, and yet in-depth surveys are required.

7.3.1 Plants Species

The distribution of plants is mainly controlled by their responses to variation in environmental factors, including water availability, topography and soil; whereas some studies showed that topography and climate are the major factors affecting the degree of speciation (Abdel Khalik and El-Sheikh 2013; Osman et al. 2014).

The quantitative analyses of plant species extending from Tabuk Region to Red Sea coastal region and the Gulf of Aaqba was investigated by different researchers. Thus, Moawed and Ansari (2015) estimated a total of 82 plant species belong to 66 genera and 30 families were recorded. Besides, Al-Mutairi1 et al. (2016) reported a total of 96 species belong to 75 genera and 38 families (34 dicots and 4 monocots). While, Basahi (2018) counted 106 species for 86 genera and 36 family only along the Gulf of Aaqba. Therefore, compiling all identified families of plant species in NEOM Region results in 51 families. Hence, the families with more than 3 plant species are:

• Amaranthanceae: 24 species

• Poaceae: 18 species (example in Fig. 7.3)

  Fig. 7.3

  

  “Panicum turgidum” belongs to Poaceae family. A dwarf shrub dominant on sand dunes and characterizes by Chamaephytic life form

• Asteraceae: 9 species

• Fabaceae: 8 species (example in Fig. 7.4)

  Fig. 7.4

  

  “Acacia tortilis” belongs to Fabaceae family. A shrub tree dominant in wadis and characterizes by phanerophytic life form

• Brassicaceae and Zygophyllaceae: 7 species

• Chenopodiaceae and Poacea: 6 species

• Resedaceae: 5 species

• Lamiaceae: 4 species

• Boraginaceae: 4 species

• Asclepediaceae and Caryophyllacea: 3 species.

There are also 38 families with only one or two species. These are as follows:

The applied chorological analysis of the recognized species indicated the predominance of mono-regional taxa over the other elements. Moreover, the chorology of flora of Tabuk Region showed that most species belonged to Saharo-Arabian (37.21%), Irano-Turanian (11.63%) and Sudanean (10.47%) elements, and this comprise almost 60% of the total number of plant reported species (Al-Mutairi et al. 2016).

The Chamaephyte and Theorphytes taxa constitute the dominant life forms with approximately 69%; followed by Geophytes, Hemicryptophytes, Phanerophytes and Parasites taxa with 13, 10% and 8%; respectively (Al-Mutairi et al. (2016). While, the life form along the coastal zone of the Gulf of Aaqba is represented by Halophytes in the coastal flats, Ephemerals in Wadi beds and Chamaephyte along foothills and slopes (Basahi (2018).

The highest number of species (i.e. 57.32%) was recorded for perennial, while annual species was recorded 42.68% (Moawed and Ansari 2015).

There are several plant species which are well pronounced in the region for their traditional and medical use to treat the digestive tract diseases and parasites. They are characterized by the uniqueness in diversity of habitats such as mountains, sand dune, wadis and coastal flats. They mainly belong to 30 families including, Asteraceae (Example in Fig. 7.5), Fabaceae, Aizoaceae and Zygophyllaceae (Alharbi 2017).

Fig. 7.5

“Anvillea garcinii” belongs to Asteraceae family. A medical shrub used their leaves and seeds to treat gastro and intestinal troubles

7.3.2 Animal Species

In the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia fauna has given much attention than flora. This is due to interest in the big mammals for the purpose of hunting and shooting, as well as the husbandry of animals as old customs and traditions. In addition, birds and butterflies have been also investigate, but less is known about other animals.

Likewise the case of plant species, there are few studies done on animal species in Tabuk Province including NEOM Region. However, the study of animal spices is more difficult than that for plants due to the reason that the mobility of animals needs regulated monitoring using tracing, fixed cameras and traps as well, and lately drones become very useful tool in this respect. Thus, to inventory for the existing animal species; physical description, biodiversity index and the relative abundance and species richness must be elaborated.

• 1. Major animal groups

According to Badawi (2012), Tabuk Region includes the following 7 major animal groups. Hence, the biotic factors on animal communities were measured by calculating the diversity index (Di) which indicates how many different types exist, and thus it based on counting the total number of individual (N) and the number of individual of spices (n). Therefore, Di is represented by the following formula:

$${\text{D}}i = {\text{N}}\left( {{\text{N}} - 1} \right)/\Sigma {\text{n}}\left( {{\text{n}} - 1} \right)$$

Therefore, the following spices, with their Di and were accounted:

• Birds: 72 species (Di =3.05)

• Mammals: 10 species (Di =1. 5)

• Reptiles: 18 species (Di =2.3)

• Amphibians: 7 species (Di =1.4)

• Invertebrates: 13 species (Di =2.23)

• Insects: 93 species (Di =3.86).

Besides, another study reported that in Tabuk Region, there are 35 mammal species, 37 reptile species and 167 bird species constituting 82 resident, and 85 migratory birds have been recorded from Tabuk region (Balletto et al. 1985; Arnold 1986; Gasperetti 1993; NCWCD 2000).

In addition, the relative abundance of species was also calculated by dividing the number of individuals in one type over the total number of individuals in all species. Hence, an inverse relationship was found between species diversity and the relative abundance as evidenced by Badawi (2012) who also came to the following findings:

• Birds: The abundance was evidenced by the dominant species of pigeon and sparrows, while other species are rare.

• Mammals: The higher abundance was found in Gerbillus nanus while the least in Spalax leucodon.

• Reptiles: Stenodactylus arabicus and stenodactylus grandiceps are the most abundant species.

• Amphibians were the highest percentage of 21%.

• Invertebrates: There is convergent abundance of spiders except in Pholcus phalangioide and also in Scorpions in Leiurus quinquestraitus and Compsobuthus arabicus.

• Insects: There are tremendous species over the whole year, obvious abundance in summer and least in winter.

• 2. Large mammals

Usually large mammals are given attention due to their obvious existence, and sometimes due to their benefit use for human. In Saudi Arabia, large mammals are distinguishable due to their biodiversity and wide spread in different ecologies.

For NEOM Region, where studies on large mammals are rare, the existing mammals can be divided into Herbivorous and Carnivores.

• Herbivorous

Except dromedary (camels), Herbivorous are rarely found in NEOM Region, but sometime they exist with very little abundance. If gazelles are considered, this can be attributed to little the few number of studies done in the region, and their presence in remote areas.

• Camelidae: This represents dromedary where the total population of dromedary is estimated to be around 1.6 million camels within the Arabian Peninsula where approximately 53% found in Saudi Arabia (FAO 2000). Thu, the Arabian camels (Camelus dromedaries) are widespread in Saudi Arabia.

  Based on the breed classification adopted by Abdalla and Faye (2012) which considers local naming, the commonly found Mustellidae: the ratel Mellivora capensis (examples in Fig. 7.6).

  Fig. 7.6

  

  Dromedaries (Waddah, white and Sahael, brown) common breeds in NEOM Region

• Bovidae: This includes antelopes, cattle, gazelles, goats, and sheep. In Saudi Arabia, there are 140 species of wild and domesticated animals in this family. For cattle, goats and sheep, they likely are not largely widespread in the study area. Beside, Arabian and Sand Gazelles and Arabian were reported. Thus, Dorcas gazelles, i.e. Al Afri; Capra ibex, i.e. Wail and mountain Gazelle, i.e. Al Admi (Al Nafie 1982).

• Eauidae: This animal family belongs to horses and donkeys, which are rarely found in the area of study, except some Hassawi donkey (i.e. generally white color) and Baladi donkey (i.e. grey and smaller than the former one).

• Carnivores

Carnivores in Tabuk Province were identified in a comprehensive study carried out by Aloufi and Amer (2019), based on camera traps, live traps and direct observations. Hence, 7 species of carnivores representing four families were identified. These are:

• Felidae: This includes (1) Felis Margarita which is located in sand dune and the adjacent rock caves and pockets, (2) Panthera pardus, which is a leopard reported in the coastal zone of Tabuk (Al-Johany 2007).

• Hyaenidae: The common type found in the study area is Hyaena which is a striped hyena.

• Mustellidae: the ratel Mellivora capensis was reported in Tabuk Province for the first time in 1985 (Gasparetti et al. 1985).

• Canidae: Despite being a regionally endangered animal species, wolf is considered as one of the most persecuted animals by locals. The identified species are: (1) Canis lupus, (2) Vulpes Cana and (3) Vulpes, red fox.

7.4 Geography of Marine Biodiversity

There are some studies done on the marine ecosystems for the Gulf of Aaqba and the Reds Sea where NEOM Region occupies the largest part at the Gulf of Aaqba and relatively small part along the Red Sea.

• The Gulf of Aaqba marine ecosystem

There is about 115 km coastline of NEOM Region along the Gulf of Aaqba where the marine ecosystem is characterized by rich and diverse habitats with over 1000 species of tropical fish, 110 species of reef building corals and 120 species of soft corals (Ammar et al. 2013).

• 1. Coral reefs: There are 158 coral species belong to 51 genera and 12 families. Hence, the studied sites along entire the Gulf of Aaqba by Ammar et al. (2013), resulted in identifying coral reefs belong to the following types:

  • Stony corals (e.g. Acropora granulosa, Ctenactis echinata, Goniastrea retiformis, Mycedium elephantotus, Polcillopor damicornis, Acropora tenuis, example Fig. 7.7).

    Fig. 7.7

    

    Coral reefs from the Gulf of Aaqba. (a. Acropora tenuis), (b. Lobophytum), (c. Millepora dichotoma), (d. Xenia umbellate)

  • Soft corals (e.g. Heteroxenia ghardaqensis, Lobophytum, example Fig. 7.7).

  • Hydrocorals (e.g., Millpora platyphylla, Millepora dichotoma, example Fig. 7.7).

  • Gorgonians (e.g. Anella gorgonian, Anella glauca, Xenia umbellate, example Fig. 7.7).

  • Black coral (e.g. Antipathies, Protoptilum).

• 2. Fishes: According to Khalaf (2004), the total fish species along the Gulf of Aaqba is 507, and they belong to 109 families with an average of 4.7 species per family; 18 Chondrichthyes and 489 Ostichthyes. The largest families are as follows:

  • Labridae: 51 species

  • Pomacentridae: 29 species

  • Serranidae: 25 species

  • Apogonidae: 24 species

  • Blenniidae: 24 species

  • Gobiidae: 21 species

  • Carangidae: 17 species

  • Syngnathidae: 16 species.

Detailed inventory on fish families and their species were reported by Fishbase (2019). Examples of some families such as: Synodontidae, Acanthuridae, Sparidae, Alopiidae, Mullidae, Belnniidae, Lethrinidae, Uranoscopdiae, Xenisthmidae, Triglidae and Platycephalidae.

• 3. Mangroves: Few studies mentioned the presence of mangrove along the Gulf of Aaqba (Kouchzius 2002). Whereas, on the facing coast of Sinai, some studies illustrated quantitative classifications for mangroves (example: Abubkr 2012)

• 4. Seagrass: Only 8 species of seagrass have been reported along the Gulf of Aaqba (El Shaffai 2011). These species were grouped into two Cymodoceaceae and Hydrocharitaceae.

  • Red Sea marine ecosystem

The coast of NEOM Region along the Red Sea is about 110 km. The Red Sea is almost a semi-enclosed and elongated water body of relatively warm water, and this governs the existing marine ecosystem.

• 1. Coral reefs: According to De Vantier et al. (2000), there are approximately 260 coral species in 68 genera of 16 families in the Red Sea. The most common families can be summarized as follows:

  • Acroporidae: 64 species

  • Faviidae: 61 species

  • Poritidae: 27 species

  • Funggiida: 26 species

  • Agariciidae: 21 species

  • Mussidae: 15 species

  • Pocilloporidae: 11 species

  • Siderastreidae: 10 species

  • Dendrophyllidae: 10 species

  • Pectinidae: 7 species

  • Merulinindae: 3 species

  • Asrtocoeniidae: 2 species

  • Oculinidae: 2 species.

• 2. Fishes: About 1120 fish species belong to 159 families exist in the Red Sea within an overall depth ranges between 0 and 200. Thus, 165 species of them are exclusively endemics to the Red Sea (Najeeb et al. 2018).

  The following are the most dominant fish families and their species:

  • Gobiidae: 24 species

  • Blenniidae: 20 species

  • Leiognathidae: 12 species

  • Syngnathidae: 11 species

  • Callionymidae: 10 species

  • Scombridae: 10 species

  • Apoginidae: 9 species

  • Cynoglossidae: 9 species

  • Nemipteridae: 9 species

  • Micodesmedae: 8 species

  • Exocoetidae: 8 species

  • Bothediae: 6 species

  • Sparida: 6 species.

• 3. Mangroves: In the c mangroves. This is due to the high salinity, poor soil textures, low precipitation and nutrient concentrations. They are represented by three species: Avicennia marina, Rhizophoramucronata, and Bruguieragymnorhiza (Mandura 1997).

• 4. Seagrass: According to Barale Vittorrio (2007), ten species of seagrass are widespread in the Red Sea. There are more than 70 species of seagrasses and they are classified into two families: Cymodoceaceae and Hydrocharitaceae (Serrano et al. 2018).

7.5 Ecosystem Loss in NEOM Region

Studies on the loss and deterioration of ecosystems are found with considerable number if compared with studies on the general assessment and quantitative analysis of biodiversity in Tabuk Province and the surrounding. This can be, sometimes, normal because the support of biodiversity to ecosystem services is usually faced by natural and man-made constraints. Hence, the biodiversity with its all ecological branches always witnesses loss in its components.

NEOM Region, can be considered as an area with few features of biodiversity loss. This can be attributed to the fact that the urban settlements are this region is sparse. However, to highlight on the loss of ecosystems at its initial stage would be significant and helpful for future precautionary implements, notably NEOM Region has assigned as a global site and vulnerable ecosystem should be identified.

The loss the ecosystems in NEOM Region exists at different levels in space and time and it differs between the located species. In a general assessment, loss of ecosystems is well pronounced in animal species, notably the Herbivorous and Carnivores, as a result of human behavior. In addition, the marine ecosystem is the second impacted biodiversity in NEOM Region while the plant spices in the least influenced.

The features and info about the loss of ecosystems in NEOM Region can be summarized as follows:

• 1. Damage in the vegetation cover in many localities due to off-road driving and sometimes due to overgrazing.

• 2. Unmanaged and chaotic construction and urban encroachment towards the coast (example Fig. 7.8).

  Fig. 7.8

  

  Chaotic construction and encroachment along the southern coast of NEOM Region

• 3. There are several aspects of marine pollution, notably the oil spills from ships, as well as the sludge.

• 4. Illegal fishing and over fishing in some localities, in addition to the use of alien species.

• 5. Illegal animal trading is known in Tabuk Region where, for example, Peregrine Falcon costs $ 7300, Gyrfalcon $ 3070, Arabain wolf $ 800 (Aloufi and Eid 2014).

• 6. Animals hunting is pronounced in the region and this acts on the extinction of many species.

• 7. Distraction of coral reefs and other shallow-water habitats through inadequate anchoring practices.

• 8. Impact of climatic extremes on the ecosystems is well pronounced (e.g. erosion, landslides, desertification, etc.).

7.6 Natural Reserves in NEOM Region

NEOM Region has several potential natural resources including the geologically-related ones (as discussed in Chap. 6); in addition to the resources with ecosystem advantages, such as the natural reserves where unique flora and fauna exist as well as the distinguished landscape and diverse natural components.

As concluded in previously, the existing ecosystems with their biodiversity in NEOM Region are unique of their types, and they are under slow processes of biodiversity loss; however, unless these ecosystems are conserved and the process of loss (deterioration, destruction, extinction) is stopped, otherwise they will reduce their uniqueness. Therefore, the protection of these ecosystems became a necessity to conserve the natural components that this region occupies.

7.6.1 General Overview

In fact, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia encompasses many diverse natural environments and sites where each of them can be a landmark. Hence, there are several areas which encompass distinguished ecological components. They have been designated as protected areas (i.e. natural reserves); and the concept of natural reserves has been adopted since 1987 when Harrat Al Harrah was considered as a natural reserve. Therefore 15 natural reserves were adopted since then. Thus, Saudi Arabia carried out the required environmental and social studies in 1991, as well as feasibility studies to prepare the system of protected areas with the experience of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). This system, which has been recently updated according to environmental developments, includes the proposal to protect 75 areas where there are 62 terrestrial 13 coastal and marine areas.

Later on, the Saudi Wildfire Authority (SWA) designated 15 natural reserves (SWA 2020) where two of them are new areas (Jubail, Majami and Jabal Shada) other than reported by the National Commission for wildlife Conservation and Development (NCWCD). In addition, there are two natural reserves were excluded by SWA from to the list. These are Al Janadreyah and Al Hair wetland (Table 7.1).

Table 7.1 Natural reserves in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (SWA 2020)

The total area of these natural reserves (protected areas) is about 102361 km². Besides, the largest one is Al-Khunfah with 19339 km², and the smallest one is Jabal Shada with 69 km². While, the closest natural reserves to NEOM Region are Al-Khunfah and Al-Tubaya.

7.6.2 Components of Natural Reserves

There are many ecological and environmental characteristics in NEOM Region which are almost similar of those in the designated natural reserves of Saudi Arabia. This motivated proposing new natural reserves in NEOM Region, notably that the natural resources, including unique ecosystem, in this region must be identified.

A nature reserve can be described as a wildlife refuge, wildlife sanctuary, protected area, biosphere reserve, biological reserve or nature conservation area. Thus, a natural reserve is created by the human initiative to protect an area with significant flora, fauna, or features of geological or other special interest. It is; therefore, reserved and managed for purposes of conservation.

The major natural components to assign a natural reserve can be summarized as follows:

• 1. Biological uniqueness

This includes the existence of unusual and rare aspects of biological life including distinguished species of fauna and flora. This is well pronounced in NEOM Region where a number of unique species were reported including 51 plants families with 106 species, whereas animals were found in six groups representing 213 species.

Some of the identified plant species are endemic and exist only in the Red sea, such as Papaveraceae, while others ones are endemic only for the Gulf of Aaqba, such as Cyperaceaea and Juncaceae. This is also the case for the animal species where unique Herbivorous and Carnivores species exist and some of them are endemic such as many types of Bovidae (e.g. Dorcas gazelles, Al Afri, Al Admi, etc.).

• 2. Necessity for protection

Likewise many areas in the Kingdom, there are many types of fauna and flora in NEOM Region threatened by extinction, and some others are already became extinct and hence there is necessity for protection.

Even though, no accurate measurable information about the extinct animal and plant species in Tabuk Region; however, a total of 9 species threatened with extinction were reported in the Red Lists of IUCN (2012), including Critically Endangered Reptilian, Endangered bird species, 5 Vulnerable species and 2 Near Threatened species.

• 3. Virgin lands

There are many lands with unique fauna and flora, but constraints exist to protect these lands. These constraints can be due to: proximity to urban activities, lands cut by major routes (railways, major roads, pipelines, etc.) and international shared lands. Hence, remote and virgin areas are usually most desirable to be natural reserves.

• 4. Protection ability

In many cases, naturally-characterized areas could not be reserved due to the lack to logistics, financial resources, and personnel for guard and the lack to creditable studies done to for the assignment of natural reserves. Unlike the case in Saudi Arabia where reserving these areas has been adopted and all requirements have been secured.

7.6.3 Proposed Natural Reserves

Any existing resource will add a significant value to NEOM Region. Therefore, the presence of natural reserves in NOEM Region will give it additional advantage, and the proposed natural reserves will be a shrine for visitors, researcher and explorers.

In spite that many areas and localities can be designated as natural reserves in NEOM Region; however, the author proposed five natural reserves depending on their geographic location, the bareness of landscape, minimal human interference as well as on the field observations. Therefore, the concept behind proposing these natural reserves came from the necessity to utilize any existing natural resources including ecological resources. In this respect, in-depth surveys should be carried out, including types of species and their geographic distribution, to make the final decision about the designated natural reserve in this document.

The proposed five natural reserves in this document include three of terrestrial ones which are mainly located in the mountainous ridges and two marine ones for Thiran and Sanafeer Islands (Fig. 7.9). The selection of the geography of these reserves considered components illustrated in the previous section (Sect. 7.6.2). The total area of the terrestrial ones is approximately 2950 km², while the marine reserves occupy 113 km².

Fig. 7.9

Propose natural reserves in NEOM Region

• 1. Jabal Al-Mahash Natural Reserve

The surface area of the Jabal Al-Mahash Natural Reserve is about 1155 km². It is located in the most northern part of NEOM Region, along a number of mountains including Jabal Zaher (1387 m), Jabal Om Louza (1623 m), Jabal Al-Nomierh (1353 m) and Jabal Amiq 1766 m). The selected area is cut by a number of wadis, specifically Wadi Al-Abyad, Wadi Jnaf, Wadi Wassat and Wadi Al-Dahyel (Fig. 7.9). This area includes two main springs, Al-Nejieleh Spring and Al-Katar Spring.

• 2. Jabal Al-Louz Natural Reserve

Located in the middles part of NEOM Region, this natural reserves has an area of about 980 km² where mountain hills and crests are dominant. The bench make here is represented by Jabal Al-Louz (2401 m) and Jabal Fayhan (2549 m), the heights elevations in NEOM Region. In addition, there are other mountians exist such as Jabal Al-Kloom, Jabal Alhouief and Jabal Omm Hayfa. Also the area occupies several incident wadis span between the existed mountains and most of these wadis convert from this area, such as Wadi Moussa, Wadi Rayt and Wadi Al-Abyad (Fig. 7.9).

• 3. Jabal Al-Shiyati Natural Reserve

This is located in the southern part of NEOM Region with an area of about 815 km². It is located in the mountain ridges and include a part of the plateau to the east (Fig. 7.9). Hence, Jabal Al-Shiyati is the most elevated peak in this region with 2103 m, plus many other mountains such as Jabal Terban (1612 m), Jabal Omm Haytham (1524 m) and Jabal Nakhleh (1576 m). While many major wadis exist including Wadi Arnab, Wadi Al-Malas and Wadi Omm Arrarah. This area, with the presence of shallow groundwater have some springs, mainly Ain Nimah Spring and Bir Al-Zereb Spring.

• 4. Thiran Island Natural Reserve

Located on the gate of the Gulf of Aaqba, Thiran Island has an area of about 80 km² (Fig. 7.9). It has a unique marine ecosystem and surrounded by shallow seawater extends several kilometers to its northern side at Ras Qasba. Thus, the highest elevation of the island is 518 m exists at its southern side.

• 5. Sanafeer Island Natural Reserve

With a distance of about 2.5 km from Thiran Island, Sanafeer Island is located and has an area of about 33 km². The highest elevation in this island is 112 m, and it is totally surrounded by shallow marine water over few kilometers.