Synonyms

Berberis aristata DC.: Berberis chitria Buch.-Ham. ex Ker Gawl., Berberis chitria var. sikkimensis C.K. Schneid., Berberis sikkimensis (C.K. Schneid.) Ahrendt, Berberis sikkimensis var. baileyi Ahrendt

Berberis asiatica Roxb. ex DC.: Berberis dealbata Lindl., Berberis hypoleuca Lindl., Berberis asiatica var. clarkeana C.K. Schneid., Berberis vinifera T.S. Ying (Harber 2020).

Berberis chitria Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don: Berberis chitria var. occidentalis Ahrendt

Berberis glaucocarpa Stapf: Berberis aristata Sims

Berberis vulgaris L.: Berberis baluchistanica Ahrendt

Local Names

Berberis aristata: Jammu: Kareel kaimbal, Daruharidra, Kaembu; Kashmir: Kasmal, Dandlether, Dandleder, Kawe dach; Sikkim: Chutro; Lepcha: Sutong, Kung; Nepali: Chutro, Chautari, Barhamase chutro; Newari: Chhuntasi, Maltapyaasi; Tamang: Kerpa, Kerba, Pichyar; Sanskrit: Daruharidra, Daruhaldhi, Rasanjan; Hindi: Chitra, Chotra; English: Barberry, Tree Turmeric

Berbneris asiatica: Kashmir: Rasaut, Kasmal; Gharwal: Kingod; Ladakh: Kirmuda; Nepali: Chutro, Aul chutro, Chutra; Newari: Chhuntasi, Maltapyaasi; Sherpa: Namli; Tamang: Kerpa; Sanskrit: Daruharidra, Daruhaldi, Rasanjan; English: Barberry

Berberis lycium: Kashmir: Kowdach, Kaodauch, Lawdach, Khawaray; Ladakh: Daruhaldi, Dama; Jammu: Cambel, Kaimal, kamble, Kamblu, Kavelli, Krumbal, Kurmal, Rasaunt, Simblu, Simloo, Simlu; Pashto: Zyar largai ، کروسکی, Karoskay زیار لارګی.

Berberis vulgaris: Ladakh: Kirsing; Malataya: Karamuk; Pakistan: Shuturum.

Botany and Ecology

Berberis aristata: Shrub, 3–4 m tall; stem terete, glabrous, pale yellow, obscurely or very minutely verruculose; internodes 2.5–4.5 cm long; spines mostly simple, rarely 3-fid, 5–10 mm long. Leaves obovate-elliptic, 3–6 (–7.5) cm long, 1–2.5 (–3) cm broad, subsessile to very shortly petioled, usually 4–8 spinose-dentate at margin, pale, slightly reticulately veined. Racemes 2–4 cm long, 15–25–flowered, rigid, rarely slightly compound. Flowers 10–12 mm across, pale yellow with petals slightly larger than the inner sepals; pedicels 5–10 mm long in fruit, stout. Prophylls about 1 mm long. Outer sepals about 2 mm long, ovate; middle ones about twice and the inner sepals about thrice as long, obovate. Petals about 7 mm long, 4.5 mm broad, obovate with retuse apices and somewhat clawed base with a pair of marginal glands. Stamens about 5.5 mm long with subapiculate apices. Berries oblong-globose, 7–9 mm long, 6–7 mm broad, black, pruinose-white; style 1 mm long; seeds 3–4, oblong-ellipsoid, 3–4 mm long. Flowering April–May. (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Common in forest clearings and disturbed vegetation along forest edges and roadsides at 1300–3400 m altitude (Adhikari et al., 2012).

Berberis asiatica: Shrubs, evergreen, 2–3 m tall. Branches pale yellow, terete, sometimes sulcate, glabrous; spines 3-fid, 1.2–2.5 cm. Leaves sessile; leaf blade abaxially shiny, pale green, adaxially dark green or grayish white, elliptic-lanceolate, 1.2–3.2 cm × 4–9 mm, leathery, abaxially with conspicuously raised midvein, lateral and reticulate veins inconspicuous, adaxially with slightly raised midvein, lateral veins visible, reticulate veins inconspicuous, base cuneate, margin slightly revolute, slightly undulate, 2–4-spinulose-serrulate on each side, apex acute, aristate. Flowers 2–10-fascicled. Pedicels 1.1–2.2 cm; bractlets ovate, ca. 2 × 1 mm, apex acuminate. Sepals in 2 whorls; outer sepals ovate, ca. 5 × 4 mm, apex acute; inner sepals oblong-obovate, ca. 7 × 4.5 mm, rounded, obtuse. Petals obovate, ca. 7 × 4 mm, base clawed, with separate glands, apex emarginate. Stamens ca. 5 mm; anther connective prolonged, apiculate. Ovules 3 or 4. Berry purplish black, pyriform or ellipsoid, 7–9 × 5–6 mm, pruinose, style persistent. Flowering May–June, fruiting July (Wu et al. 1994–2013). Common in disturbed vegetation beside roads and trails, and forest clearings at 1000–2700 m altitude (Adhikari et al. 2012). B. asiatica is easily distinguished by other closely related species by its leathery leaves with distinct reticulate venation and glaucous berries Nepal, India, China, Bhutan, Myanmar.

Berberis chitria: Shrub, 3–4 m tall, almost deciduous; stem and shoots terete, dark reddish-brown, finely pubescent to subglabrous; internodes 2.5–5 cm long; spines (1–)3-fid, 1–2(−3) cm long. Leaves obovate to elliptic, 2–6(−10) cm long, 1.5–2.5 (−4) cm broad, dull to pale green, subsessile, finely reticulate, usually 3–9 spinulose at the margin, sometimes almost entire. Inflorescence (5–)8–12(−17) cm long, 10–20-flowered, loosely corymbose-paniculate, with flowers usually in groups of three, including peduncle (1.5–)4–6(−8) cm long, drooping. Flowers 12–18 mm across, yellow, often tinged with red; pedicels 8–15 mm long, glabrous. Prophylls c. 1.5 mm long, appressed, at middle of pedicel or the base of flower. Sepals obovate, outer 6–7 mm long, inner 9–10 mm long, Petals 8–9 mm long, broadly elliptic, emarginate and subacute at the apex. Stamens 7 mm long, subapiculate at the apex. Ovules 4–5, with longer stipes. Berries dark red-brown, 10–12 mm long, 4–6 mm broad, narrowly ovoid or oblong-ellipsoid, epruinose, excluding 1–1.5 mm long style. Flowering May–June. Almost throughout the Himalayas. The var. occidentalis, which includes Kashmir plants also and is said to have smaller, entire leaves (2–4.5 cm long) and broader fruits (12 x 6 mm), is not different from it. (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020).

Berberis glaucocarpa: Shrub, 3–4 m tall; stem terete, glabrous, pale yellow, obscurely or very minutely verruculose; internodes 2.5–4.5 cm long; spines mostly simple, rarely 3-fid, 5–10 mm long. Leaves obovate-elliptic, 3–6 (−7.5) cm long, 1–2.5 (−3) cm broad, subsessile to very shortly petioled, usually 4–8 spinose-dentate at margin, pale, slightly reticulately veined. Racemes 2–4 cm long, 15–25-flowered, rigid, rarely slightly compound. Flowers 10–12 mm across, pale yellow with petals slightly larger than the inner sepals; pedicels 5–10 mm long in fruit, stout. Prophylls c. 1 mm long. Outer sepals c. 2 mm long, ovate; middle ones c. twice and the inner sepals c. thrice as long, obovate. Petals c. 7 mm long, 4.5 mm broad, obovate with retuse apices and somewhat clawed base with a pair of marginal glands. Stamens c. 5.5 mm long with subapiculate apices. Berries oblong-globose, 7–9 mm long, 6–7 mm broad, black, pruinose-white; style 1 mm long; seeds 3–4, oblong-ellipsoid, 3–4 mm long. Flowering April–May. Another very similar species, Berberis lycioides Stapf, with narrower leaves, longer racemes, berries 10–12 mm long, oblong-ovoid, and petals entire and shorter than inner sepals, may also occur within our area. (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020).

Berberis lycium: Shrub, 2–3(−4) m tall, erect or suberect, semideciduous; stem and branches pale, whitish to greyish, terete to subsulcate, glabrescent, younger ones obscurely to distinctly puberulous; internodes 1.5–3.5 cm long; spines (1–)3-fid, (6-)10–20 mm long, yellowish to straw-coloured. Leaves oblanceolate to oblong-obovate, (2–) 3–6 cm long, 6–12 mm broad, subsessile, usually conspicuously papillose, grey or white below, entire to 2–4 spinulose at the margins, acute to subacuminate, openly veined. Racemes (6–)10–25-flowered, 3–6(−7) cm long, rarely shorter and subfascicled (2–2.5 cm). Flowers 6–8 mm across, usually pale-yellow; pedicels 6–12(−15) mm long, rarely longer, slender, thin, glabrous; bracts 2–2.5 mm. long. Prophylls c. 1 mm long, ovate, reddish. Outer sepals much smaller than the middle and inner sepals; inner sepals 4.5–5 mm long, 3 mm broad, obovate. Petals slightly shorter than the inner sepals, obovate, emarginate, with lanceolate basal glands. Stamens slightly shorter than petals, connectives produced or anthers apiculate. Ovules usually 4, shortly stipitate. Berries 7–8 mm long, c. 5 mm broad, ovoid or obovoid-subglobose, excluding 1 mm long style, blackish with heavy grey-white bloom; seeds 3–4 mm long. Flowering April–June. Distribution: Kashmir, Pakistan and N. W. Himalayas. A variable species said to have replaced Berberis ceratophylla G. Don in Kashmir and Western Himalayas and itself to be replaced by Berberis parkeriana Schneid. in the bordering areas of Kashmir and Pakistan. The varieties subfascicularis Ahrendt and subvirescens Ahrendt with shorter, 5–15-flowered inflorescences, racemose to subfascicled, seem to be only variants of the species, the former with leaves like the type variety but the latter with leaves dull greenish below. (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020) (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6).

Fig. 1
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Berberis lycium (Berberidaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Arshad Mehmood Abbasi)

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Fig. 2
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Berberis lycium (Berberidaceae), Bhutan. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Fig. 3
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Berberis lycium (Berberidaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

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Fig. 4
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Berberis lycium (Berberidaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Wahid Hussain)

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Fig. 5
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Berberis lycium (Berberidaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

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Fig. 6
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Berberis lycium (Berberidaceae), Pakistan. (Photo Hammad Ahmad Jan)

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Berberis orthobotrys: Shrub, 1(–2) m high, glabrous; stem often dark red, sometimes orange-yellow or pale-brownish; internodes 1–2(−3.5) cm long, sulcate, strict; spines mostly 3–fid, 1–2(–2.5) cm long, orange-yellow to reddish or brownish. Leaves very variable, usually obovate, 1–2.5(–3.5) cm long, 5–15 (–20) mm broad, 5–15(20) spinose-serrulate at the margins, rarely subentire, green, sometimes subpruinose grey beneath, subsessile shortly petiolate (up to 5 mm). Inflorescence racemose, subumbellate, umbellate-racemose or racemose-subfascicled, rarely compound below, highly variable, usually 5–20(–25)-flowered, 1.5–3(–4) cm long, obscurely to distinctly peduncled. Flowers 7–12 mm across, yellow to pale-yellow; pedicels (4–)5–12)(–15) mm long, lower often longer than the upper ones, slender rarely stout (and short). Sepals 4–7 mm long, outer smaller, Petals about as long as or slightly shorter than the inner sepals, emarginate to entire, flat to convolute. Stamens about as long as or shorter than the petals, connectives not produced, rarely subconical. Ovules 3–5. Berries oblong, subovoid or subobovoid, rarely oblong-orbicular, 7–10 mm long, 5–6 mm broad, very variable, red, sometimes subpruinose or somewhat dark-colored when dried, often 3–seeded; seeds c. 3 mm long, oblong-ellipsoid. A variable species in leaf size, serrations, fruit size, shape, coloration and length of pedicels. (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020).

Berberis vulgaris: Deciduous shrubs up to 3 m tall. Stems long, with short branches bearing spines. Bark of second year stems smooth and gray in color. Bud scales fall off early. Leaves simple, usually obovate with one midvein and with short petioles, margins flat with shallow teeth tipped with small spines. Flowers in a raceme disposed from short shoots with 10–20 flowers each; anther filaments lack curved teeth. Berries are red to purple, round, juicy and solid. Mainly under cultivation. Found throughout the Caucasus, Central Europe, Mediterranean, the Balkans, Russia, and Central Asia. Introduced to North America. Flowers and fruits from May to June. Berberis vulgaris is an important food for many small birds, which disperse the seeds in their droppings. The species is the alternate host species of the wheat rust fungus (Puccinia graminis), a grass-infecting rust fungus that is a serious fungal disease of wheat and related grains. (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020).

Phytochemistry

Berberis aristata: High concentration of Berberine, especially in the roots (Furrianca et al. 2015, Chander et al. 2017). Also contains aromoline, berbamine, berlambine, columbamine, palmatine, jatrorrhizine, karachine, oxyberberine, taxilamine and oxyacanthine (Bhardwaj & Kaushik 2013; Watanabe et al. 2005), carbohydrates, tannins, phytosterols, flavonoids (quercetin, meratin, rutin), and volatile oils (Furrianca et al. 2015).

Berberis asiatica: Contains berberine, berbamine, berbinium, berlambine, palmatine, columbamine, Jatrorrhizine, oxyberberine oxyacanthine, magnoflorine (Watanabe et al. 2005; Bhardwaj & Kaushik 2013; Furrianca et al. 2015), tannins, flavonoids, steroids, saponins, phenols, carbohydrates, proteins, and free amino acids (Patni et al. 2012; Furrianca et al. 2015). reported from root and stem of B. asiatica (Patni et al. 2012; Furrianca et al. 2015).

Local Medicinal Uses

Berberis aristana It is also taken as blood purifier and tonic (Watanabe et al. 2005). Bark, wood, and roots are used to treat Jaundice, malarial fever, fever, diabetes, diarrhea, and skin diseases (Rajbhandari 2001; Manandhar 2002; Watanabe et al. 2005; Chapagain et al. 2018). In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh used as laxative, for backache, fractures, jaundice, rheumatism, as rejuvenating tonic, for eye ailments, fever, and weakness (Gairola et al. 2014). To treat fever, jaundice, malaria, diarrhea, swellings, eye problems, and ravies in Sikkim (Tamang et al. 2017). Used by the Lepcha for skin disorders, jaundice, and gastric problems (Palit and Banerjee 2016).

Berberis asiatica fruits are used as mild laxative for children, the roots and bark as astringent, stomatic, diaphoretic, and to remedy piles (Joshi et al. 2010), with similar uses reported by Singh et al. Used for eye problems (Kunwar et al. 2008; Kunwar et al. 2013; 2015) and serves for gastric problems, as anthelminthic, for diabetes and eye infections (Joshi et al. 2010; Kunwar et al. 2009, 2013), and also as mild laxative, especially for children. In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh used for backache and joint pain (Gairola et al. 2014). In Gharwal to remedy diabetes, eye infections, and kidney stones (Pratap Singh et al. 2019), in Ladakh for gastric problems, diabetes and eye infections (Malik et al. 2015). Applied to snakebites (Houghton and Osibogun 1993) and as ophthalmic (Kumar et al. 2011). The wood, root bark, and the plant extract are alterative, deobstruent, astringent, antiperiodic, and diaphoretic. Decoction of root bark is used in eye disease (Watanabe et al. 2005). It is used as blood purifier and to treat rheumatisms, jaundice, fever, diarrhea and dysentery, and in eye problems (Rajbhandari 2001; Kunwar and Bussmann 2009a, b). It is also used with butter for the treatment of bleeding piles (Bhattacharjee et al. 1980). Studies suggested that several species of Berberis are traded under the same vernacular name (Srivastava and Rawat 2013).

Berberis lycium: A brown extract from its roots and lower parts of stem is called “Rasaunt” and is mixed with water for use as cooling agent or tonic. It is also used as an eye lotion. (Ali and Qaiser 1995–2020). Root is used in jaundice and diarrhea. The bark of the root is used in diabetes, also used as tonic (Gilani et al. 2006). Root and leaves are used for Jaundice and diarrhea (Ahmad et al. 2017). The paste of bark and roots is used to treat fracture and headache. Locally, the dried root is used for the treatment of fractured bones and wounds healing and as general body tonic (Ahmad and Habib 2014). Dried root bark given orally as body tonic (Akhtar et al. 2013). Root of the plant is used for hepatitis, menorrhagia, chronic fever, and jaundice (Ahmad et al. 2014). Leaves and fruit decoction is used for dyspepsia (Wali et al. 2019a, b). Root is febrifuge, used in piles. Leaves are used in jaundice (Hussain et al. 2008). The plant is locally used as carminative, febrifuge, treating eye complaints, chronic diarrhea, piles, toothache and septic gums, jaundice, fencing and hedges, diabetics, and as tonic (Jan et al. 2017). The paste of root bark is externally applied on wounds. Powdered bark is mixed in water and the paste is applied on bone fracture. Crushed bark is soaked in water and the resultant extract is taken early morning to treat diabetes, scabies, boils, and pimples. The extract possesses cooling effect and seldom used in winter season (Ahmed et al. 2013). Root and stem barks are tonic. Decoction of root and stem barks are used against splenic trouble, as intestinal astringent, good for cough, chest, and throat trouble and a good application to boils. The paste of root bark is externally applied on wounds and on bone fracture. Crushed bark is soaked in water and the resultant extract is taken early morning to treat diabetes, scabies, boils, and pimples. The extract possesses cooling effect and seldom used in winter season (Amjad and Arshad 2014). Used to heal wounds (Ur-Rahman et al. 2018), conjunctivitis, and diabetes, eye infections, jaundice, fever and urinary infections (Sher et al. 2016), for bone fractures, pneumonia, headache, stomachic, arthritis, wound healing, to speed delivery (Wali et al. 2019a, b), and blood purification (Muhammad et al. 2019). Used for eye problems and piles (Joshi et al. 2010). In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh used as cooling agent, to reduce stomach acidity, as coagulant, for constipation, diarrhea, intestinal problems, jaundice, liver ailments, piles, stomach-ache, wounds, antiseptic, for blemishes, throat pain, colds, cough, diabetes, dropsy, eczema, eye ailments, fever, as gastric tonic, for indigestion, irregular bowel moments, as laxative, for toothache, urinary problems wounds, as astringent, for boils, chest problems, and spleen trouble (Gairola et al. 2014).

Berberis brandisiana: In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh used for as tonic and for eye problems (Gairola et al. 2014).

Berberis pachyacantha: In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh to treat fever (Gairola et al. 2014).

Berberis pseudumbellata: In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh used for throat-ache and intestinal disorders (Gairola et al. 2014).

Bereris ulicina: In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh to remedy ringworm, as tonic, for throat problems, diarrhea, intestinal ulcers, lung diseases, eye problems, piles, as tonic, for bloody vomit, and lung diseases (Gairola et al. 2014).

Berberis jamesoniana/Berberis vulgaris: In Tajikistan a root infusion is used to treat cardiovascular diseases, gastric diseases, neurasthenia, rheumatism, fevers, and a poultice is used for inflammatory processes of fractures and bruises. In northern Tajikistan, the roots are used to treat wounds, bone fractures, rheumatism, radiculitis, heart pain, and stomach aches. In Kazakhstan, the extract of young branches is used for headache. The fruit infusion acts as anticoagulant. In Uzbekistan, the leaves are used as cardiotonic and antipyretic. All over the region, the fruits are used as antipyretic, to relieve thirst. A decoction of the leaves is used to treat kidney stones, tuberculosis, chest pains, and headaches. An infusion of the fruits is used to treat constipation and wounds (Bussmann et al. 2020). Also used to treat high blood pressure and skin problems (Sher et al. 2016; Ur-Rahman et al. 2019).

Berberis vulgaris: to treat jaundice, bone fractures, as anthelminthic and laxative (Ghorbani 2005). In Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh used intestinal ulcers, lung disease, diarrhea, and vomiting blood (Gairola et al. 2014). In Matalaya, as anthelminthic and as liver protectant (Tetik et al. 2013), in Pakistan for gastrointestinal problems and sore-throat (Kayani et al. 2015).

Berberis orthobotrys: Used as sedative, bronchitis, for fever, and as analgesic (Majid et al. 2019).

Berberis parkeriana: For bone fractures, jaundice, back-ache, as tonic, and high blood pressure (Majid et al. 2019).

Berberis pseudumbellata: Used to remedy indigestion, typhoid, muscular pain, jaundice, and urinary problems (Kayani et al. 2015).

Berberis rigidifolia: The roots are used to treat fevers, as a purgative, as a tonic, against excessive sweating, and especially the root is used to stop bleeding (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020).

Other species like Berberis glauca and Berberis goudotii are used for constipation, fevers, hemorrhages, as sudorific, to treat malaria, and as skin tonic. The fruit is used in refrigerating syrups (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020).

Berberis buceronis is used in for liver problems and hepatitis, respiratory and nervous system disorders, and gynecological problems. The plants show antibacterial properties and essentially no toxicity. Most material is used in mixtures with other species. Packages labeled as “Berberis vulgaris” are distributed to patients in the Peruvian social security health system, and Berberis species are widely sold in markets (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020).

Berberis holstii: Root decoction as remedy for constipation, as laxative, and for chest diseases (Kokwaro 2009).

Local Food Uses

Berberis aristata and Berberis asiatica: Fruits are eaten (Dangol et al. 2017). Ripe fruits are eaten fresh and used to make alcoholic drinks. The inner bark of stem and roots are used to make yellow dye. The spiny branches are sometimes used to make fences around fields in villages (Manandhar 2002).

Berberis rigidifolia: fruits can be eaten (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020).

Berberis jamesiana/Berberis vulgaris: The fruits are eaten fresh, and dried for use in sauces, for making jams and sweets, as well as spice (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020; Bussmann 2017) (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7
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Berberis vulgaris (Berberidaceae), fresh fruits in market, Gori, Georgia. (Photo R.W. Bussmann & N.Y. Paniagua-Zambrana)

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Berberis holstii: The fruits are eaten fresh, and dried for use in sauces, for making jams and sweets, as well as spice (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Fedorov 1984).

The fruits of Berberis brandisiana are elso eaten (Abbas et al. 2019).

Local Handicraft and Other Uses

Berberis rigidifolia Ecuador: The root is used as a dye because it contains yellow berberine. The plant is used as a living fence (Paniagua Zambrana et al. 2020).

Berberis jamesiana/Berberis vulgaris: The bark yields yellow, golden, dark violet, dark blue, and olive dyes for wool and silk (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2020; Bussmann 2017).

Berberis lycium is also used for forage, and widely sold (Ahmad Jan et al. 2017; Ullah et al. 2019; Wali et al. 2019a, b), and is given to livestock for internal wounds (Ali et al. 2019).

Berberis holstii has no use among the Samburu (Bussmann 2006). The bark of many species, however, yields yellow, golden, dark violet, dark blue, and olive dyes for wool and silk (Batsatsashvili et al. 2017; Bussmann et al. 2014, 2016a, b, 2017, 2018; Bussmann 2017; Fedorov 1984).

Berberis balochistanica (Umair et al. 2019). The leaf and bark powder of the spiny branches of Berberis brandisiana are used as fence around gardens, house, and hut material. Whole plant is also used as fuel wood (Abbas et al. 2019) (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8
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Berberis lycium (Berberidaceae) root bark for sale in shop, Bahrain, Swat. (Photo Ikram Ur-Rahman & Hassan Sher)

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