Abstract
This chapter is a kind of pilgrimage, site-hopping a variety of sacred locations. Questions to be addressed are what it is that is believed to be sacred, where the boundary to the sacred is drawn and how manipulable that boundary is. The idea of a sacred site will be employed rather broadly in order to allow readers to explore a wide range of different ways in which the concept is conceptualised and how it is contained. The journey will us take through natural landscapes to both small and large artefacts and then on to the more abstract conception of the religious community as a sacred site. As a point of reference, the chapter will take the ideas formulated by the sociologist Émile Durkheim and the anthropologist Mary Douglas.
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Notes
- 1.
Émile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, tran. Joseph Ward Swain (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1968 (original 1912)), 47.
- 2.
Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1966), 44–50.
- 3.
Mary Douglas, Implicit Meanings: Essays in Anthropology (London and Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1975), 33.
- 4.
Mark Cartwright. “Mount Fuji,” in Ancient History Encyclopedia, last modified 12 April 2017, https://www.ancient.eu/.
- 5.
Genesis 8:4. The King James Bible.
- 6.
Ravneet Ahluwalia, “Mountaineers Ignore Ban to Climb Sacred Monument,” Independent 3 July (2017).
- 7.
Lilit Marcus, “Crowds Surge to Uluru as Climbing Ban Imposed,” CNN Travel 25 October (2019).
- 8.
Ian Reader, “Pilgrimage Growth in the Modern World: Meanings and Implications,” Religion 37, no. 3 (2007): 210–229.
- 9.
Jenny Blain, “Beyond Sacred: Recent Pagan Engagements with Archaeological Monuments—Current Finding of the Sacred Sites Project.” The Pomegranate 11, no. 1 (2009): 97–123; Ronald Hutton, Blood and Mistletoe. The History of the Druids on Britain (London: Yale University Press, 2009); Kathy Jones, The Ancient British Goddess: Her Myths, Legends and Sacred Sites (Glastonbury: Ariadne, 1991).
- 10.
Alphons Bellesheim, St. Columba and Iona: The Early History of the Christian Church in Scotland (Vancouver: Eremitical, 2010).
- 11.
Anon, Look What Happened While You Were Sleeping (Sterrett, Alabama: Caritas of Birmingham, 2010).
- 12.
Elise Harris, “Pope Francis: I Am Suspicious of Ongoing Medjugorje Apparitions,” Catholic News Agency 13 May (2017), https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/pope-francis-i-am-suspicious-of-ongoing-medjugorje-apparitions-68961.
- 13.
Hannah Brockhaus, “Pope Permits Pilgrimages to Medjugorje as Apparitions Continue to Be Studied,” Catholic News Agency 12 May (2019), https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/pope-francis-i-am-suspicious-of-ongoing-medjugorje-apparitions-68961.
- 14.
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, The Endowed from on High: Temple Preparation Seminar—Teacher’s Manual (Salt Lake City, Utah: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 2003).
- 15.
Anamaria V. Iosif Ross, “Cradle, Manger, Granary: Carving the Body from the Nation’s Sacred Flesh,” Journal of Religion and Society 8 (2006): 1–12, 3.
- 16.
Ruth Ingram, “Something Is Rotten in the State of Saudis: Non-Muslim Chinese Allowed into Mecca,” Bitter Winter 5 November (2019).
- 17.
Vrindaban, a city about 100 miles south of Delhi, housing over 1000 temples, is one of the most sacred sites for the Vaisnavism tradition of Hinduism. It is believed that Krishna spent most of his childhood there. I am indebted to Dr Burke Rochford for finding me this quotation.
- 18.
Henry Doktorski, Killing for Krishna: The Danger of Deranged Devotion (Create Space Independent Publishing Platform, 2018).
- 19.
When my husband was in hospital recovering from a heart operation, he was visited by a member, who performed a special ritual for his recovery which involved scattering consecrated rice around his bed. My husband recovered, but the nurses in the hospital vocally objected to what Douglas would have undoubtedly referred to as “matter out of place.”
- 20.
Ki Hoon Kim and Michael Balcomb, Holy Ground Guidebook (New York: HAS-UWC, 2015); Sun Myung Moon, Blessing and Ideal Family (Part 1) (Washington DC: FFWPU International, 1998). Ch. 2, 2.
- 21.
David Jasper, The Sacred Body (Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2009), xi.
- 22.
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, The 2003 (1st edition 1995). Endowed from on High: Temple Preparation Seminar—Teacher’s Manual.
- 23.
Tenzin Wangyal Rinpoche, Awakening the Sacred Body (Carlsbad, USA: Hay House, 2011).
- 24.
Christine Hoff Kraemer, “Pagan Traditions: Sacralizing the Body,” in Religion: Embodied Religion, ed. Kent L. Brintnall (Farmington Hills, MI: Macmillan, 2016), 143–163.
- 25.
Angela Burr, I Am Not My Body: A Study of the International Hare Krishna Sect (New Delhi: Vikas, 1984).
- 26.
His Divine Grace A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, Beyond Birth and Death (Los Angeles: Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, 1972).
- 27.
Karnamrita. “Making the Body a Temple for Service,” Krishna.com 7 March 2010.
- 28.
I first explored some of these ideas several years ago in Barker, Eileen. “We’ve Got to Draw the Line Somewhere: An Exploration of Boundaries That Define Locations of Religious Identity,” Social Compass 53, no. 2 (2006): 201–13.
- 29.
Max Weber, The Methodology of the Social Sciences (New York: Free Press, 1949), 90ff.
- 30.
A further challenge is presented when one tries to classify (typify) ‘combination identities’ such as Christian Buddhists, the JuBus (Jewish Buddhists) or members of the JewAge.
- 31.
Dion Fortune, The Cosmic Fortune (York Beach, Maine: Samuel Weiser, 2003), Ch. 4.
- 32.
James A. Beckford, The Trumpet of Prophecy: A Sociological Study of Jehovah’s Witnesses (Oxford: Blackwell, 1975); Douglas J. Davies, An Introduction to Mormonism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).
- 33.
This is not to suggest that converts to new religious movements are brainwashed zombies, who have been coerced into joining and are incapable of leaving without outside intervention.
- 34.
Fawaz A. Gerges, Isis: A History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2016).
- 35.
Ziya Meral, No Place to Call Home. Experiences of Apostates from Islam: Failures of the International Community (London: Christian Solidarity Worldwide, 2008).
- 36.
Rasa Pranskevičiūtė, “Back to Nature Philosophy in the Vissarion and the Anastasia Movements,” Alternative Spirituality and Religion Review 3, no. 2 (2012): 198–215.
- 37.
Thomas Heinzel, “Slavic Messianism in Bulgaria: The White Brotherhood and the Question of National Identity (1920–1944),” International Journal for the Study of New Religions 2, no. 1 (2011), 214–231.
- 38.
The Russian Orthodox Church has been objecting virulently over the independence of the Orthodox Church in Ukraine. Andrew Roth and Harriet Sherwood. “Russian Orthodox Church Cuts Ties with Constantinople,” The Guardian 15 October (2018), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/oct/15/russian-orthodox-church-cuts-ties-with-constantinople.
- 39.
Emma Leverton, “The Religious Dimensions of Juche-Kimilsungism,” in New Religious Movement in Modern Asian History, ed. David W. Kim (forthcoming 2020): 291–320.
- 40.
Lily Kuo, “‘If You Enter a Camp, You Never Come Out’: Inside China’s War on Islam,” The Guardian 11 January (2019), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jan/11/if-you-enter-a-camp-you-never-come-out-inside-chinas-war-on-islam.
- 41.
The online paper Bitter Winter https://bitterwinter.org/ provides daily accounts of the violations of religious freedom by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).
- 42.
Andrew Curry, “Ancient Sites Damaged and Destroyed by ISIS,” National Geographic 5 November 2017. https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/history-and-civilisation/2017/11/ancient-sites-damaged-and-destroyed-isis; Christopher W. Jones, “Understanding ISIS’s Destruction of Antiquities as a Rejection of Nationalism,” Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology & Heritage Studies 6 (2018): 31–58.
- 43.
Jormundur Ingi, “Paganism or the Rediscovery of Identity,” presented at WCER Pagan Conference, Antwerp, March 7th (1999).
- 44.
Now generally thought of as a Christian tradition celebrating the transfiguration of Jesus, Vardavar’s history dates back to a pre-Christian festival, traditionally associated with the goddess Astghik, the goddess of water, beauty, love and fertility. Nowadays, the central ritual, observed by Armenian youth in particular, consists of throwing a bucket of water over unwary citizens.
- 45.
About 20 miles to the east of Yerevan, the Temple at Garni is believed to have been built around 77 CE for the worship of Greek and, later, Roman gods. It has undergone a number of demolitions and renovations over the centuries.
- 46.
Victor A. Shnirelman, “‘Christians! Go Home!’ A Revival of Neo-Paganism between the Baltic Sea and Transcaucasia (an Overview),” Journal of Contemporary Religion 17, no. 2 (2002): 197–211.
- 47.
Jonas Trinkūnas, Baltic Religion Today (Vilnius: Senovės baltų religinė bendrija, 2011).
- 48.
According to the 2011 census, over 5000 of Lithuania’s 3.5 million population identified with Romuva.
- 49.
Ingi, “Paganism or the Rediscovery of Identity”; Jonas Trinkūnas, “10th Anniversary of the WCER and the Main Problems of the Movement,” The Oaks 6 (2006–7): 24–25.
- 50.
Michael Strmiska, “Romuva Looks East: Indian Inspiration in Lithuanian Paganism,” in Religious Diversity in Lithuania: Ethnographies of Hegemony and Pluralism, ed. Milda Ališauskienė and Ingo W. Schröder (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2011); Michael F Strmiska and Vilius Rudra Dundzila, “Romuva: Lithuanian Paganism in Lithuania and America,” in Modern Paganism in World Cultures: Comparative Perspectives, ed. Michael F. Strmiska (Santa Barbara, Denver, and Oxford: ABC-Clio, 2005), 241–298.
- 51.
Caitlin Matthews, “A Celtic Quest,” in Exploring Journeys, ed. V. Barnett, R. Howarth and P. Williams (London: Shap Working Party on World Religions in Education, 1993), 7.
- 52.
Bowman, Marion. “Cardiac Celts: Images of the Celts in Paganism,” in Paganism Today: Wiccans, Druids, the Goddess and Ancient Earth Traditions for the Twenty-First Century, ed. Graham Harvey and Charlotte Hardman (London: Thorsons, 1995), 242–51.
- 53.
Robert Brenton Betts, The Druze (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988).
- 54.
Menachem Wecker, “Dating to Save Your Tiny Religion from Extinction,” The Atlantic 27 March (2016).
- 55.
“Conducting the Holy Wine Ceremony,” last modified 12 November 2019, https://bfm.familyfed.org/wp-content/uploads/Conducting-the-Holy-Wine-Ceremony.pdf.
- 56.
Children who have been brought into the movement by parents who were not Blessed at the time of their joining are not seen as ‘special’ in the same way as the Blessed Children and have sometimes felt badly discriminated against because of this.
- 57.
One might stretch the category even further to include the Indigo children, who are described as a spiritually, psychically, and genetically advanced generation. Born from the early 1980s, the Indigo Children are believed to be here to usher in a new golden age by “changing the world’s current social paradigm.” Lee Carroll and Jan Tober, The Indigo Children: The New Kids Have Arrived (Carlsbad CA: Hay House, 1999); Beth Singler, The Indigo Children: New Age Experimentation with Self and Science (London: Routledge, 2017).
- 58.
They may, however, feel unwelcome in a particular congregation, as has been the case with some African and West Indian immigrants to England.
- 59.
Bernice Martin and Ronald Pluck, Young People’s Beliefs (London: General Synod Board of Education, 1976).
- 60.
NatCen. “Church of England Numbers at Record Low,” NatCen Social Research that Works for Society 7 September (2018). I found that there was actually a higher proportion of Britons who felt they belonged to the Church of England than were actual members of the Church as part of a pan-European study into Religious and Moral Pluralism (RAMP), conducted in 1998, with a representative sample of 1466 British residents aged 18 or over.
- 61.
For a discussion of how ‘new religious movement’ might be defined, see Eileen Barker, “What Are We Studying? A Sociological Case for Keeping the ‘Nova,” Nova Religio 8, no. 1 (2004): 88–102. J. Gordon Melton, “Toward a Definition of ‘New Religion,” Nova Religio 8, no. 1 (2004): 73–87.
- 62.
Robert N. Bellah et al., Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985).
- 63.
Paul Heelas, “Californian Self Religions and Socializing the Subjective,” in New Religious Movements: A Perspective for Understanding Society, ed. Eileen Barker (Lewiston NY: Edwin Mellen, 1982), 69–85.
- 64.
Graham Hancock, ed. The Divine Spark: Psychedelics, Consciousness and the Birth of Civilization (London: Hay House, 2015).
- 65.
Luke 17:20–21(KJV).
- 66.
Christopher Helland, “Online Religion as Lived Religion: Methodological Issues in the Study of Religious Participation on the Internet,” Online-Heidelberg Journal of Religions on the Internet. Special Issue on Theory and Methodology 1, no. 1 (2005), 1. See also Heidi Campbell, “Understanding the Relationship between Religion Online and Offline in a Networked Society,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 80, no. 1 (2012): 64–93.
- 67.
Adam Possamai, ed. Handbook of Hyper-Real Religions (Leiden: Brill, 2012); Carole M. Cusack, Invented Religions: Imagination, Fiction and Faith (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2010).
- 68.
Helland, “Online Religion as Lived Religion,” 4.
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Barker, E. (2021). Contemporary Creations and Re-cognitions of Sacred Sites. In: Kim, D.W. (eds) Sacred Sites and Sacred Stories Across Cultures. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56522-0_11
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