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Laboratories of the Conditio Humana: The Role of Communism in Greek and Argentine Torture Centers During Their Last Military Dictatorships

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Abstract

The chapter discusses the connections between ideology and practices of violence. This is done by focusing on two torture centers during the Greek and Argentine military dictatorships. In so doing, the comparison serves preventing speculations that are based only on one single case. Both regimes described themselves explicitly as anti-communist. On a discursive level, an extremely flexible use of the attribution of communism can be stated. The reflection of the junta’s rhetorics reveals that communism functioned as a projection screen. However, it is possible to shed light on the impact of specific imaginations about communism. In this context, the chapter develops two arguments. The practice of forced cooperation can be interpreted as a means to counter the widespread image of communist solidarity, backed by the people. Sexualised violence against women can be considered a response to the postulate of gender equality associated with communism.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Makedonia, “Απαντήσεις είς σειράν ερωτημάτων [Answers to Questions],” April 28, 1967, 1.

  2. 2.

    Massera in his speech The Quiet and Subtle Cyclon, held on May 3, 1977. Cited after Marguerite Feitlowitz, A Lexicon of Terror (Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 40.

  3. 3.

    Emmi Mikedakis, “Manipulating Language: Metaphors in the Political Discourse of Georgios Papadopoulos (1967–1973),” in Greek Research in Australia: Proceedings of the [3rd] Annual Conference of Greek Studies. Flinders University, 23–24 June 2000, ed. Elizabeth Close, George Frazis and Michael Tsianikas (Adelaide, 2001), 76–86; Despina Papadimitriou, “Η ιδεολογία του καθεστώτος [The Regimes’ Ideology],” in Η στρατιωτική δικτατορία 1967–1974 [The Dictatorship 1967–1974], ed. Vangelis Karamanolakis (Athens: Ta Nea, 2010), 105–114; Marina Franco and Daniel Lvovich, “Historia Reciente: apuntes sobre un campo de investigación en expansión,” Boletín del Instituto de Historia Argentina y Americana “Dr. Emilio Ravignani” 29, no. 47 (2017), 201.

  4. 4.

    Cf. the work of Feierstein, who emphasizes the impact of the junta’s ideology on the whole society. Daniel Feierstein, Genocide as Social Practice. Reorganizing Society under the Nazis and Argentinás Military Juntas (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2014), 162; Hagen Fleischer, “Authoritarian Rule in Greece (1936–1974) and Its Heritage,” in Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes in Europe. Legacies and Lessons from the Twentieth Century, ed. Jerzy W. Borejsza, Klaus Ziemer and Magdalena Hułas (New York: Berghahn, 2006), 252–253; Heinz A. Richter, Griechenland 1950–1974. Zwischen Demokratie und Diktatur, Peleus. Studien zur Archäologie und Geschichte Griechenlands und Zyperns 60 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2013), 348–349.

  5. 5.

    Adam Scharpf, “Ideology and State Terror. How officer beliefs shaped repression during Argentina’s ‘Dirty War’,” Journal of Peace Research 55, no. 2 (2018), 206.

  6. 6.

    Cf. an in-depth reflection of his data on http://www.prio.on/jpr/datasets.

  7. 7.

    Darius M. Rejali, Torture and Democracy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007).

  8. 8.

    Rejali, Torture and Democracy, 5.

  9. 9.

    Rejali, Torture and Democracy, 17.

  10. 10.

    Rejali, Torture and Democracy, 18.

  11. 11.

    This article is based on research I conducted for my PhD thesis, which deals with repression and torture during the Argentine and the Greek dictatorships. Presumably, it will be published in 2021.

  12. 12.

    Cf. for the figuration analysis Norbert Elias, Was ist Soziologie? (München: Juventa, 2000), 139–145. The debate how to analyze violence is huge. See for example Jörg Baberowski, “Gewalt verstehen,” Zeithistorische Forschungen 5, no. 1 (2008); Felix Schnell, “Gewalt und Gewaltforschung,” accessed October 3, 2015, https://docupedia.de/zg/Gewalt_und_Gewaltforschung.

  13. 13.

    Cf. Karin Knorr-Cetina, Epistemic Cultures—How the Sciences Make Knowledge (London: Harvard University Press, 1999), 62; Marilyn Strathern, “Foreword. Not Giving the Game Away,” in Anthropology, by Comparison, ed. Andre Gingrich and Richard G. Fox (New York: Routledge, 2002), xvi–xvii.

  14. 14.

    Transcript of a meeting between Mr. George Papadopoulos, the Prime Minister of Greece, and U.S. Senators and Representatives, August 22, 1969, 10. Princeton University Library. Semites, Kostas, Collection of Ephemera and Newspapers on Resistance Organizations and Activities against the Greek Dictatorship of 1967–1974, Box 9.

  15. 15.

    Georgios Papadopoulos, “Speech, 27.04.1967”, in Το πιστεύο μας. Λογοι, συνεντεύξεις, δηλώσεις, μηνύματα και εγκύκλιοι από 27.04.1967 απρίλιου εώς 9 φέβριου 1968, τόμος Α [Our Creed. Speeches, Interviews, Statements, 27.04.1967–09.02.1967], ed. Georgios Papadopoulos (Athens, 1968), 10.

  16. 16.

    Implicitly, Papadopoulos links the overthrow to the civil war in Greece. Papadopoulos, “Speech, 27.04.1967,” 10.

  17. 17.

    Jorge Videla, “Speech, 30.03.1976”, in Mensajes presidenciales. Proceso de reorganización nacional, 24 de Marzo de 1976, vol. 1, ed. Republica Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1977), 10.

  18. 18.

    Emilio Massera, “La postergacion de un destino, December 1976”, in El camino a la democracia, ed. Emilio Massera (Buenos Aires, Caracas: El Cid, 1979), 22.

  19. 19.

    For example, Videla declared in a speech in December 1976 that “the repression is directed against a minority we do not consider Argentine.” Videla, cited after Feitlowitz, A Lexicon of Terror, 27. For the Greek case the foreign minister, Stylianos Pattakos, formulated in a conversation with the Amnesty International delegate, Anthony Marreco, the remarkable phrase: “A communist is not a Greek.” Amnesty International: Second Report on Torture of Political Prisoners in Greece, 06.04.1968, 4, in: EMIAN: Collection Giannoulopoulos, Box 52.2.

  20. 20.

    Unknown torturer cited after Statement of Andreas Leloudas, in: European Commission for Human Rights, Yearbook of the European Convention on Human Rights 1969. The Greek Case (Den Haag: Martinus Nijhoff, 1972), 218.

  21. 21.

    Tom Farer, “I Cried for you, Argentina,” Human Rights Quarterly 38, no. 4 (2016), 858. Cf. for the mission of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights in Argentina Marcos Novaro and Alejandro Avenburg, “La CIDH en Argentina: Entre La Democratización y Los Derechos Humanos,” Desarrollo Económico 49, no. 193 (2009), 61–90; Cf. for the impact of Amnesty International on Greece Barbara Keys, “Anti-Torture Politics: Amnesty International, the Greek Junta, and the Origins of the U.S. Human Rights Boom’,” in The Human Rights Revolution. An International History, ed. Akira Iriye, Petra Goedde and William I. Hitchcock, Reinterpreting history (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 201–222.

  22. 22.

    Massera in his speech The Quiet and Subtle Cyclon, held on May 3, 1977. Cited after Feitlowitz, A Lexicon of Terror, 40.

  23. 23.

    Cf. for the concept of the political detainee Peter Benenson, “The Forgotten Prisoners,” The Observer, May 28, 1961.

  24. 24.

    Cf. for the Greek case Press and Information Department of the Ministry to the Prime Minister: The Truth about Greece, Athens 1968, in: Archives of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC): B AG 225 084-102. Cf. for the Argentine case Iain Guest, Behind the Disappearances: Argentina's Dirty War against Human Rights and the United Nations (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990), 82–83; The Times, “Argentine Population Terrorized, Amnesty Says,” March 24, 1977.

  25. 25.

    Cedric Thornberry, “Greek Prisoners Speak of Police Torture,” The Guardian, November 24, 1967, 15.

  26. 26.

    Thornberry, “Greek Prisoners Speak of Police Torture,” 15.

  27. 27.

    Letter of Eric Baker to the ICRC-directorate, 24.11.1967, in: ICRC-Archives: B AG 225 084-75.

  28. 28.

    James Becket, Barbarism in Greece. A Young American Lawyer’s Inquiry into the Use of Torture in Contemporary Greece, with Case Histories and Documents (New York: Walker and Company, 1970), 12.

  29. 29.

    European Commission for Human Rights, Greek Case, 522–565.

  30. 30.

    Mikis Theodorakis, “Είμαστε δυό [We Are Two],” in Τραγούδια - Liederbuch, ed. Mikis Theodorakis (Berlin: Gerhardt, 1983), 120–121.

  31. 31.

    Cf. for a detailed description of the structure of the special units Ministerio de Defensa, Relevamiento y análisis documental de los archivos de las Fuerzas Armadas Argentinas (Buenos Aires, 2015), 339–346.

  32. 32.

    Rodolfo J. Walsh, “Carta abierta de un escritor a la Junta Militar, 24.3.1977,” in Amorós, Argentina en el archivo de IEPALA (1976–1983), 36–43. See for the distribution of the letter Alexander Hasgall, Regime der Anerkennung. Kämpfe um Wahrheit und Recht in der Aufarbeitung der argentinischen Militärdiktatur (Bielefeld: transcript, 2016), 154. Walsh had inside knowledge because he was in contact with Sergio Tarnopolsky, who was a 21 year old conscript in the army doing mandatory military service at the ESMA. Cf. reprinted parts of Rodolfo Walshs article Historia de la guerra sucia en la Argentina, in: Eduardo Anguita and Martín Caparrós, La voluntad. Una historia de la militancia revolucionaria en la Argentina, vol. 3, Edición Definitiva (Buenos Aires: Booket, 2014), 148–154.

  33. 33.

    Walsh, “Carta abierta,” 39. Today, the ESMA is especially notorious for the numerous death flights. Even if this knowledge wasn’t exactly part of the knowledge the detainees had at the time, it is likely that at one point at least rumors about the disappeared went around. However, it is difficult to tell to what regard this had an impact on the precise acts of torture and the behavior of the detainees.

  34. 34.

    Horacio D. Maggio, “Testimonio de un superviviente de la ESMA,” in Amorós, Argentina en el archivo de IEPALA (1976–1983), 179–185.

  35. 35.

    Letter of the American embassy to the Department of State, 27.4.1978, 1, in: NSA: Argentina Declassification Project.

  36. 36.

    Letter of the American embassy to the Department of State, 10.1.1979, 1, in: NSA: Argentina Declassification Project.

  37. 37.

    Le Monde, “Trois anciennes détenues argentines racontent leur <voyage au bout de l'horreur>,” October 14, 1979, 16; Comision Argentina de Derechos Humanos, Testimonios de los Sobrevivientes del Genocido en la Argentina (Barcelona, 1979).

  38. 38.

    This is for example reflected in the role the two torture centers played in trials in the aftermath of the two military dictatorships. Adamantios Skordos, “Transitional Justice in Griechenland,” in Griechenland im Kontext des östlichen Europa. Geschichtsregionale, kulturelle und völkerrechtliche Dimensionen, ed. Adamantios Skordos (Leipzig: Leipziger Universitätsverlag, 2016), 204–206. Susana Kaiser, “Argentinean Torturers on Trial: How Are Journalists Covering the Hearings’ Memory Work?” in Journalism and Memory, ed. Barbie Zelizer and Keren Tenenboim-Weinblatt (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 243.

  39. 39.

    Cf. various oral testimonies of former detainees as well as material which is related to later trials against former torturers. Lampros Tokas, ed., Τα παιδιά του Φλεβάρη. Μαρτυρίες συλληφθέντων αγωνιστών 40 χρόνια μετά το χτύπημα στο κλιμάκιο του ΚΚΕ [The February Children. Testimonials of Detained Resistance Fighters 40 Years after the Suppression of the KKE in 1974] (Athens: Kastanioti, 2014). Oral History Archive of the initiative Memoria Abierta in Buenos Aires; Periklis Rodakis, Οι δίκες της χούντας. Οι δίκες των βασανιστών της επταετίας [The Junta Trials. The Trials against the Torturers], vol. 1 (Athens, 1976). Testimonies of former ESMA in the Trial of the Juntas, 1985. See the archival material stored in the Archivo Nacional de la memoria (ANM).

  40. 40.

    Periklis Korovesis, Ανθρωποφύλακες [The Method: A Personal Account of the Tortures in Greece] (Athens: Ilektra, 2007), 31.

  41. 41.

    Munú Actis et al., Ese infierno. Conversaciones de cinco mujeres sobrevivientes de la ESMA (Buenos Aires: Editorial Sudamericana, 2001), 38.

  42. 42.

    Central Intelligence Agency, Kubark Counterintelligence Interrogation Manual (Washington, 1963), 94.

  43. 43.

    Polymeris Voglis, Becoming a Subject. Political Prisoners during the Greek Civil War, 1945–1950 (Oxford, New York: Berghahn, 2002), 131.

  44. 44.

    In this sense, killing is not considered to be part of torture. Cf. the former detainee Jacobo Timerman who quotes a doctor he talked to during his detainment as following: “Some people died during the torture, without any decision have been taken to kill them, this is regarded as a professional failure.” Jacobo Timerman, Preso sin nombre, celda sin numero (Buenos Aires: El Cid, 1982), 54.

  45. 45.

    According to Rejali these orders referred to national security ideologies. Rejali, Torture and Democracy, 18.

  46. 46.

    Petros Vlassis, “Testimony,” in Barbarism in Greece. A Young American Lawyer’s Inquiry into the Use of Torture in Contemporary Greece, with Case Histories and Documents, ed. James Becket (New York: Tower, 1970), 133.

  47. 47.

    M., interview by Janis Nalbadidacis, October 21, 2013, Athens.

  48. 48.

    M., interview by Janis Nalbadidacis, October 21, 2013.

  49. 49.

    Cf. Feierstein, Genocide as Social Practice, 1. The “true democracy” was a repeated motif in the statements of the junta. Cf. Videla, “Speech, 30.03.1976,” 12–13.

  50. 50.

    Letter of the American embassy to the Department of State, 4.1.1979, 1–3, in: NSA: Argentina Declassification Project.

  51. 51.

    Former detainees of the ESMA refer to this tasks often as slavery work. Patricio Abalos Testoni et al., “El “trabajo esclavo” en ESMA. Aportes para comprender el funcionamiento y los efectos dentro y fuera del sistema concentracionario de esta práctica genocida,” Tela de juicio. Debates en torno a las prácticas sociales geocidas 1, no. 1 (2015), 95.

  52. 52.

    In Argentina this practice was called “dar un paseo” which means “go for a walk.” Cf. Testimony of Susana Jorgelina Ramus, in: Tribunal Oral en lo Criminal Federal No 5 de la Capital (TOCF5), “Fundamentos de la sentencia dictada en el juicio oral por crímenes de lesa humanidad cometidos en la ESMA (789 hechos),” accessed June 20, 2018, http://www.cij.gov.ar/adj/pdfs/ADJ-0.020898001520527761.pdf, 1309–1310.

  53. 53.

    Raúl David Vilariño, Yo secuestré, maté y ví torturar en la Escuela de la Armada (Buenos Aires: Editorial Perfil, 1984), 152.

  54. 54.

    Vilariño, Yo secuestré, 152. ‘Marcar’ was another term to label this practice. It means identifying.

  55. 55.

    Martín Tomás Gras cited after Feitlowitz, A Lexicon of Terror, 67.

  56. 56.

    Pilar Calveiro, Poder y desaparición. Los campos de concentración en Argentina, 3rd ed. (Buenos Aires: Colihue, 2006), 133. Osvaldo Barros goes even so far to describe one of his co-detainees “brainwashed.” Feitlowitz, A Lexicon of Terror, 53.

  57. 57.

    Miriam Lewin and Olga Wornat, Putas y guerrilleras: Crímenes sexuales en los centros clandestinos de detención. La perversión de los represores y la controversia en la militancia. Las historias silenciadas. El debate pendiente (Buenos Aires: Planeta, 2014), 19.

  58. 58.

    Léon Rozitchner, “Y huirá la tristeza y el gemido,” in Ese infierno. Conversaciones de cinco mujeres sobrevivientes de la ESMA, ed. Munú Actis et al. (Buenos Aires: Editorial Sudamericana, 2001), 18.

  59. 59.

    M., interview by Janis Nalbadidacis, October 21, 2013. Cf. for the Argentine case Lewin who says that “having survived meant we were traitors.” Lewin and Wornat, Putas y guerrilleras, 30.

  60. 60.

    Rodakis, Trials against the Torturers, vol. 1, 20.

  61. 61.

    Canal Encuentro: Interview with Víctor Melchor Basterra, 2013, accessed September 20, 2018, http://www.encuentro.ar/programas/serie/8431/5756?start=.

  62. 62.

    Testimony of Yorio, quoted in Guest, Behind the Disappearances, 36.

  63. 63.

    Actis et al., Ese infierno, 167.

  64. 64.

    Cf. for example M., interview by Janis Nalbadidacis, October 10, 2013, Athens.; K., interview by Janis Nalbadidacis, November 5, 2013, Athens. Cf. Nikolaos Papadogiannis, “Red and Purple? Feminism and young Greek Eurocommunists in the 1970s,” European Review of History 22, no. 1 (2014), 18–19; Margaret Poulos, Arms and the Woman. Just Warriors and Greek Feminist Identity (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009).

  65. 65.

    M., interview by Janis Nalbadidacis, October 21, 2013.

  66. 66.

    See for this episode Kiti Arseni, Μπουμπουλίνας 18 [Bouboulinas 18] (Athens: Themelio, 1975), 80; Katerina Stefatos, “The Female and Political Body in Pain: Sexual Torture and Gendered Trauma during the Greek Military Dictatorship (1967–1974),” in Gendered Wars, Gendered Memories. Feminist Conversations on War, Genocide and Political Violence, ed. Ayşe G. Altınay and Andrea Pető, The feminist imagination—Europe and beyond (London, New York: Routledge, 2016), 80.

  67. 67.

    Cf. for example Vlassis, “Testimony,” 135; Nikos Manios, “Testimony,” in Fleming, A Piece of Truth, 250; Ioannis Klonizakis, “Testimony,” in Fleming, A Piece of Truth, 238.

  68. 68.

    In the case of my interviews this might have to do with the fact that it was me, a young man, who was interviewing them. This might have caused further inhibitions to describe explicitly the experience of falanga. Cf. K., interview by Janis Nalbadidacis, November 5, 2013; M., interview by Janis Nalbadidacis, October 21, 2013; P., interview by Janis Nalbadidacis, November 22, 2013, Athens. Cf. the case of Aggeliki Sotiri as an exception. In her hearing on November 13, 1975, she is one of the few who describes explicitly that one of the torturer took off her clothes to torture her genitals. Summary of the hearing of Aggeliki Sotiri, 13.11.1975, in: Periklis Rodakis, Οι δίκες της χούντας. Οι δίκες των βασανιστών της επταετίας [The Junta Trials. The Trials against the Torturers], vol. 3 (Athens, 1976), 1450. Cf. the illuminating article of Kavemann for further descriptions of limits and obstacles in interviews about the experience of sexual violence Barbara Kavemann, “Erinnerbarkeit, Angst, Scham und Schuld als Grenzen der Forschung zu Gewalt,” in Forschungsmanual Gewalt, ed. Cornelia Helfferich, Barbara Kavemann and Heinz Kindler (Wiesbaden: Springer, 2016), 52–65.

  69. 69.

    Korovesis describes such a case of a woman who had to suffer anal rape. Cf. Korovesis, The Method, 108.

  70. 70.

    Arseni, Bouboulinas 18, 72.

  71. 71.

    Cf. Stefatos who takes this case as a clear example for systematic sexual abuse during the Greek military dictatorship. Katerina Stefatos, “Subaltern Bodies: Gender Violence, Sexual Torture, and Political Repression during the Greek Military Dictatorship (1967–1974),” in Gender Violence in Peace and War: States of Complicity, ed. Victoria Sanford, Katerina Stefatos and Cecilia M. Salvi (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2016), 24.

  72. 72.

    Summary of the hearing of Olga-Nadia Valavani, 13.11.1975, in: Rodakis, Trials against the Torturers, vol. 3, 1446.

  73. 73.

    The documentary of Alida Dimitriou is an outstanding exception in this regard. Alida Dimitriou, Τα κορίτσια της βροχής (The Girls of the Rain) (Greece, 2012).

  74. 74.

    Stefatos, “Subaltern Bodies,” 24.

  75. 75.

    Diana Taylor, Disappearing Acts. Spectacles of Gender and Nationalism in Argentina's “Dirty War” (Durham, London: Duke University Press, 2005), 152.

  76. 76.

    Cf. Claudia Bacci et al., “… y nadie quería saber” Relatos sobre violencia contra las mujeres en el terrorismo de Estado en Argentina (Buenos Aires: Memoria Abierta, 2012), 14–17; Florencia Corradi and Julia Nesprias, “La dimensión sexual del Genocidio. Pensando la violencia sexual a partir de la Mega Causa ESMA,” Tela de juicio. Debates en torno a las prácticas sociales geocidas, no. 1 (2015), 73–77; Lewin and Wornat, Putas y guerrilleras, 202–209.

  77. 77.

    Cf. Sutton who uses the term “exorcising the politics” to describe the absolute dimension the sexual violence against women had. Barbara Sutton, “Terror, testimonio, y transmisión: sobrevivientes de centros clandestinos de detención en Argentina (1976–1983),” Mora. Revista del Instituto Interdisciplinario de Estudios de Género 21, no. 1 (2015), http://www.scielo.org.ar/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1853-001X2015000100001&lng=es&nrm=iso.

  78. 78.

    Le Monde, “Trois anciennes détenues argentines,” 16; Claudia Feld, “ESMA, hora cero: las noticias sobre la Escuela de Mecánica de la Armada en la prensa de la transición,” Sociohistórica. Cuadernos del CISH, 23–24 (2008), 86.

  79. 79.

    Comision Argentina de Derechos Humanos, Testimonios de los Sobrevivientes del Genocido en la Argentina, pp. 45–48. Cf. for the common use of the word ‘transfer’ for the killings Feitlowitz, A Lexicon of Terror, 60.

  80. 80.

    Lewin y Womat argue, that for a long time sexual violence was absorbed of human rights violations which were considered to be more relevant. Lewin and Wornat, Putas y guerrilleras, 105–106.

  81. 81.

    This is reflected in testimonial literature as for example Actis et al., Ese infierno; Memoria Abierta, ed., “…y nadie quería saber.” Relatos sobre violencia contra las mujeres en el terrorismo de Estado en Argentina (Buenos Aires, 2012). Cf. for the silencing Argentine politics before 2003 Marcos Novaro, “The Politics of Human Rights in Argentina, from Alfonsin to Menem,” in Andreozzi, Desaparición. Argentina's Human Rights Trials, 39–63.

  82. 82.

    Cf. for the importance of testimony in current Argentina Lior Zylberman, “Figuras de justicia. El testimonio en los documentales sobre los juicios por los crímenes de la última dictadura militar argentina,” Kamchatka. Revista de análisis cultural. 3, no. 6 (2016), 717–739; Susana Kaiser, “Argentina’s Trials,” Latin American Perspectives 42, no. 3 (2015), 193–206; Vera Vigevani de Jarach, “The Role of Testimony as a Tool for the Creation of a Political Project,” in Andreozzi, Desaparición. Argentina's Human Rights Trials, 233–255. Cf. for the discussion of sexual abuses in the trials Corradi and Nesprias, “La dimensión sexual del Genocidio,” 67–79.

  83. 83.

    Gabriela Águila, “Estudiar la represión: entre la historia, la memoria y la justicia. Problemas de conceptualización y método,” in Dilemas, apuestas y reflexiones teórico-metodológicas para los abordajes en Historia Reciente, ed. Patricia Flier (La Plata: Universidad Nacional de La Plata, 2014).

  84. 84.

    Stefatos, “The Female and Political Body in Pain,” 82.

  85. 85.

    M., interview by Janis Nalbadidacis, October 21, 2013.

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    Janis Nalbadidacis

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  1. Institute of History, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland

    Christian Gerlach

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    Clemens Six

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Nalbadidacis, J. (2020). Laboratories of the Conditio Humana: The Role of Communism in Greek and Argentine Torture Centers During Their Last Military Dictatorships. In: Gerlach, C., Six, C. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of Anti-Communist Persecutions. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54963-3_5

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