Keywords

1.1 Introduction

Writing about various perspectives and applications adapted by theorists and practitioners of English worldwide which aim to engage, enrich and elucidate suggestions for the teaching of English, is indeed a Herculean task but not a Sisyphean one. The attitudes of English language users about the functions and resultant stature of English across countries and cultures has always been a point of great deliberation. The use of different Englishes within a multilingual framework, aptly an ‘alchemy of English’, ‘signify a transmutation: an added potential for material and social advantage’ and in that sense, “English is considered a symbol of modernization, a key to expanded functional roles, an extra arm for success and mobility in culturally and linguistically complex and pluralistic societies” (Kachru 1990, p. 1). This generates fascinating and broad ranging bilingual and multilingual translanguaging practices, where the variabilities of English are seen “not as marked or unusual but rather are taken for what they are, namely the normal mode of communication in those communities” (Poza 2017, p. 102), manifesting “a resource to citizens, a spur to scholars, a challenge to those who shape policy and public life” (Hymes 1981, p. iv).

These variabilities have been researched with different points of concern, with some seeing them as a ‘linguist’s paradise’, for example, Kachru’s four functional uses of the English varieties viz. instrumental, regulative, interpersonal, and creative (1983a), Canagarajah’s codemeshing (2011), Pandharipande’s acceptance of English within Hindi-speaking communities as a language for religious, philosophical, and theological discourses, and Bhatia and Sharma’s analysis of the role of English in the Indian legal system to name a few (Kachru et al. 2008), while others have visualized it as a ‘linguist’s problem area’, for example, inquiry of Abidi and Gargesh as to ‘whether English would be accepted, adopted, mastered and creatively used to the same extent as Persian in South Asia’ (ibid. 2008), or need of a 5-year strategic plan to cultivate ‘Japanese with English Abilities’ (Honna and Takeshita 2005).

One of the major contributions of Kachru’s three circles construct of English is breaking ‘the native speaker mystique’ and placing the spotlight on multilingualism (Schmitz 2014) and the variations created by the users. Taking that forward, the present book, too, focuses on the functional variation of English, central to the pluralistic theories of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), English as an International Language (EIL), and world Englishes (WE). All three, i.e. ELF, EIL, and WE have interrelated and overlapping concerns, and are not viewed as competing terms in this volume, but rather as manifesting different emphases in research. For example, while ELF refers to a ‘specific communication context’ where English is ‘the common language of choice, among speakers who come from different lingua-cultural backgrounds’ (Jenkins 2009, p. 200), EIL largely focuses on the diversification of English in the present globalized world, aiming for intelligibility, comprehensibility and interpretability (Smith 1983; Nelson 2011). EIL in its present form comes closer to WE by recognising the ‘pluricentricity of English and equal treatment given to all varieties of English and its speakers’ (Marlina 2016, p. 6), and by advocating the need for the development of more sophisticated frameworks to understand competences such as Canagarajah’s (2006) ‘multidialectal’ competence or its extension as ‘multi-varietal’ and ‘metacultural’ competence (Sharifian 2016, p. 42).

EIL studies primarily converge on ‘international functions of English and its use in a variety of cultural and economic arenas by speakers of English from diverse lingua-cultural backgrounds who do not speak each other’s mother tongues’ (Marlina 2016, p. 4). In this respect, WE, distinct from ELF and EIL, focuses on the spread and acculturation of English in various parts of the world. Like EIL, WE has always been ‘pluralistic and inclusive’ (Kachru and Smith 2009, p. 2), recognizing all distinct varieties, maintaining the concern about the ‘competencies’ required for a multilingual repertoire since ‘multilingual language users have more options of codes, strategies, and nuances since they control more than one linguistic system’ (Kachru and Smith 2009, p. 19). This complexity is exemplified in the Indian context as well by Gargesh (2008, p. 231) stating that ‘Indian English (IndE) is a cover term for a number of varieties of English used as a second language in India’. Similarly, in the context of second language acquisition (SLA) studies, the variations in convention of language use enable the acquisition of ‘linguistic, pragmatic and sociocultural competence in all varieties of English’. Similarly, ‘English in third/foreign language’ contexts, with noticeable variations at both the geographic and functional levels, calls to be recognized, and institutionalised (Hino 2009). This acknowledgement and awareness, then, lead to teaching learners to use English as a means of expressing their values and attitudes. It also paves the way for introducing material for teacher training programs and textbooks to expose students of English to various conventions of speaking and writing.

Furthermore, WE recognizes the ownership of language by a speaker (Berns 2009) and highlights ‘bilingual creativity’, not only in common usages but also in the literary sense (Kachru 2005; Kacgru and Smith 2009; Bolton 2010). In bilingual/ multilingual situations, WE not only studies the process of convergence manifested in the global use of English, but also the reverse process of convergence leading to Englishization of local language(s) (Kachru 2005). We recognize of course that from as early as 2003, the notion of Kachru’s three circles—with its geographically-bound varieties—has been challenged by a range of scholars, in an effort to shift from a historico-political question of where users come from, to what they do (or don’t do) with the language (Bruthiaux 2003; Seargeant and Tagg 2011 as cited in D’Angelo 2018). But these challenges do not take away from the significant contribution of Kachru’s work, and his emphasis on inclusivity for all those who use the language, and this openness provides a solid framework for how this volume considers functional variation. In fact, Bolton (Bolton 2020) has often stressed that those who criticize the notion of varieties, are taking too simplistic a view of Kachru’s work on world Englishes, as they do not realize that his work on the three circles was not the main thrust of his contribution.

1.2 Rationale

In an effort towards denouement, or at best a resolution of conundrums if any, the volume highlights the varied roles and applications of English in a multitude of linguistic contexts, and showcases functionalities emerging as a consequence of it being situated there either by legislation or by practice. It examines the sociolinguistic and educational relevance of functional variations for the practitioners of the language in those contexts, and the complications they present to the policy and educational decision makers for their management. In short, the volume brings together the challenges posed by the myriad use of functional variations of English to understand their underpinnings and implications for English teachers and learners. As language functions, and language variations are both very broad topics, this volume attempts to give the reader a fuller understanding of the complexity of the range of practical functions for which English is used in our modern world. It then within those functions, explores the effects of variation in form and discourse on the users of English and the contexts in which they operate.

More specifically, the volume brings together general as well as ESL/EFL related perspectives to functionalities of English from geographically diverse contexts which include Asia, Africa, South America, the Middle East and Russia. It offers insights to ELT practitioners working in areas of applied linguistics and contact linguistics (pidgin, creoles & other social and areal functions of English); TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages), TEFL (Teaching of English as a foreign/second language), and EMI (English as a Medium of Instruction) programs for various disciplines such as medicine, law, counselling etc.; and numerous other courses, namely, pre-university, and vocational programs. The volume, thus, offers theoretical discussions and practical implications to those practitioners who teach, or plan to teach English across cultures. Additionally, in line with the suggestion of “diversity management” (Honna 2005) as a viable way to manage multiculturalism of English in Asia and beyond, the volume attempts to provide educators with curricular suggestions to address the specific needs of students from multilingual/ multicultural/multidisciplinary backgrounds and “develop internationally coordinated educational programs” (ibid). It is, therefore, a valuable resource for those scholars, educators and practitioners, who, reflecting critically on their practices, desire to explore how to upgrade programs, curricula, material and teaching in order to address the developing needs of their learners to communicate locally as well as globally via English.

1.3 Approach

The chapters of the volume employ a critical approach to examine the functional variations of English language, followed by an analysis of the real-time challenges in different fields where English is applied. Hence, functional English, as evident in its use in real communicative/academic situations, is judiciously studied to propose provisions and practices for more effective global communication and pedagogy.

The thematic focus of the volume is on the functional variation of English in non-native contexts. Though some chapters within a part may have overlapping concerns, Part I largely focuses on general perspectives and concerns arising from the roles and practices of English in non-native contexts. Part II examines functional variation of English in what is traditionally known as the Outer Circle or ESL countries. English in these contexts has been granted official status and some of the resultant variations have been institutionalized. Similarly, Part III looks into the forms and functional variations of English in Expanding Circle contexts in which English does not have an official status, it holds an impeccable place in a given language situation and plays an indispensable role in it. Finally, Part IV takes a pedagogical perspective to exploring functional variations, and addresses implications for policy, procedures and practices for addressing concerns regarding their planning, policy, and pedagogy.

1.3.1 Part I

Focusing on general perspectives, Chap. 2 by Bolton demonstrates how countries in Asia energized by economic, educational, social, technological and other pulls of globalization, are dealing with the complexity of functions handled via English in their respective language ecologies. It then suggests the interplay of the twin dynamics of centrifugal and centripetal forces in languages and linguistic systems as a way of reconciliation. In Chap. 3, Bagchi discusses the dilemma of either placing a translation in the contemporary context or time it was first written. This problem is faced by translators from the “peripheries” of the English-speaking areas, especially for texts such as mystic and Sufi literature that are embedded in rich socio-cultural contexts of Asian subcontinent. The chapter suggests that with appropriate introductions and annotations, these challenges can be met.

In Chap. 4, Oda studies aviation English as a lingua franca used to facilitate smooth communication between pilots, air traffic controllers and other personnel working to achieve higher safety for today’s international jet-setters. The author’s analysis brings out that it is not necessary to stick to one particular language, but to use all available linguistic resources, especially in dire circumstances, thereby proposing English as a Multilingual Franca (EMLF) and promotion of a ‘shared repertoire’ (Seidlhofer 2011, p. 87). Data analysis of real-time transcripts from a few different countries show several factors which can cause communication ‘clash’; for example, there were many instances of deviation from formal aviation English to commonly spoken English in a difficult situation. Issues of pronunciation and comprehension also came across as important factors hampering clarity in communication, especially when pilots from different countries interacted with one another. The author suggests further focus and study in this area, as it involves the physical safety of many people.

Chapter 5, by Hanamoto, looks at English as a Lingua Franca interactions between students from Japan and a few other countries. Using three recorded dyadic conversations of one Japanese and one international student and their co-created topics, the study found that interlocutors negotiate and co-construct meaning through the use of gestures, especially iconic and deictic gestures and other multimodal resources alongside verbal strategies when communicating. These gestural actions can be divided into three functions: supporting development of the conversation, clarifying temporal aspects of the conversation, and filling in difficult-to-express details. In these ways, gestures could be used to achieve alignment between interlocutors (McNeill 2005) in accommodation (e.g., Giles and Smith 1979) and collaborative strategy (e.g., Kaur 2010; Mauranen 2006).

Adopting Gargesh’s (2006) framework of nativizing poetic medium in world Englishes, Chap. 6, by Xu, explores functional variations in the sphere of poetry writing, in particular, the functional variations of cultural semiotics. Including 38 poems from the collection of a Chinese poet, Ha Jin, the chapter looks at three aspects: (1) Mixing, switching, alteration and transcreation of codes; (2) Use of native rhetorical devices and (3) Manifestation of cultural semiotics that signify identities, socio-cultural beliefs and aspirations. The study leads to the conclusions that it is normal to nativize the poetic medium across varieties of English; transcultural creativity in literary writing in world Englishes is a natural response to the multicultural flows of multilingual writers and their shifting worlds; and functional variation among varieties of English in literary writing can be regarded as a contribution to the ever-expanding world Englishes literature, since as “Globalization continues to spread, … transcultural flows continue to grow” (D’Angelo 2017, p. 1). Finally, analyzing the concept of ‘authentic’ Englishes, especially in the language used in media, in Chap. 7 Moody shows how various languages are creatively and discursively portrayed within the media Englishes (ME) in the ‘Inner’ and ‘outer circles’ implying three things: (1) the ‘endonormative’ nature of English in the ‘inner’ and ‘outer circles’ gives freedom to mass media content providers to discursively portray Englishes; (2) that ‘authority’ and ‘authenticity’ gets relative importance within the ME of the ‘Inner’, ‘Outer’ and ‘Expanding circles’; and (3) more innovation is required in assessing MEs in terms of their commitment to ‘authority’ and ‘authenticity’ in view of the fact that the issue of authenticity is questioned by many sociolinguists.

1.3.2 Part II

Part II includes four papers that view functional variation from Kachruvian Outer Circle perspectives. In Chap. 8, Christiane Meierkord takes a fresh view of Indian English(es) via the well-known Indian diaspora beyond the subcontinent: exploring the ongoing evolution of Indian English in the settings of Afghanistan, the Maldives, and Uganda. She defines Indian English as a ‘super-central variety’ which influences other peripheral/younger varieties of English, much as the British or American varieties also have supra-territorial influence. Reminding us of the complexity of language spread and variation, she emphasizes the remarkable diversity of the evolution of English in these contexts, and the different channels in which the language operates as a result of their unique social histories.

Chapter 9 by Tariq Rahman moves on to the Pakistani context, looking at English in the past, present and future. Rahman echoes the point made by Mohanty, that while English offers upward social mobility to young Pakistanis, it is a language of the elite and may exacerbate social stratification and other gaps between the ‘haves’ and ‘have-nots’. It is the official language of important functional domains such as the judiciary and government, the military officer corps, higher education, and the media, but many are still denied access to this means of betterment. Rahman also reflects on the way different generations have utilized English, and future directions Pakistani English may take. Readers may also be interested in consulting Mahboob’s chapter in Part IV, to get a deeper understanding of problem in the Pakistan context from the perspective of subaltern linguistics.

Obiageli Pauline Ohiagu takes us to the African continent in Chap. 10, looking at variations in English language use on Facebook by both native and non-native users. Her chapter strengthens the argument that nationally bordered varieties are of less and less importance in this era of globalization, extensive migration, and dynamic ever-changing online speech communities. As in the work of Bruthiaux (2003) and Seargeant and Tagg (2011), we see that the Circles are being ‘squared’ as we move to a post-varieties world. Ohiagu issues a final caveat, that this ‘emerging global dialect’ may deviate so much from ‘standard English’, that the; Tower of Babel; fears that Kachru (1985) once dismissed, may again become a concern. She may be right, but I would tend to agree more with scholars such as Van Rooy (2008), who observe that people will somehow manage to understand one another.

1.3.3 Part III

Part III presents the Expanding Circle Perspective on functional variation. We begin with Chap. 11 by Kanavillil Rajagopalan, which takes a speculative glimpse at where English is headed in South America. The author provides extensive background on earlier Spanish/Portuguese colonization, and what he terms the eventual ‘incursion’ of English into the 12 countries of the South American continent. As with the chapter in the previous part by Rahman, and as eloquently outlined in the Japanese context by Yamagami and Tollefson (2011), Rajagopalan characterizes attitudes toward English in the continent as ambivalent, and a ‘strange admixture of adoration and suspicion’. Nevertheless, he stresses that English is inextricably bound up in the geopolitics of the region, and reaches into every remote corner of South America, just as it does in Africa and Asia. This again affirms that English is ubiquitous, even as it is variegated, regardless of the ‘Circle’ in which the nation may be placed, and it will continue to make inroads into the lives of those in South America.

In Chap. 12, Zoya Proshina gives us an insider’s view into the shifting functions of—and attitudes towards—English in the Russian context. Proshina at first provides an informative explication of how the role of English has traditionally differed in the Expanding Circle, as compared to the Inner or Outer circles. Nevertheless, she correctly points out that whatever the context, a new variety of English is by definition strongly influenced by local languages and cultures. English has become of growing importance in Russia in the past two generations, and Proshina outlines the increase in functional load of the language in education, business, sales and advertisement, science, music, literature and administration. She also gives a useful specific outline of the functional areas of English in Russia. In addition, her chapter echoes that of Ohiagu in Part II, discussing the prevalence of code-switching and translanguaging among Russian users.

Lauren Zentz provides a sophisticated discussion of the semiotic functions of English in Indonesia in Chap. 13. Focusing mainly on evidence from central Java, Zentz goes beyond the notion of languages as distinct and separate entities accompanied by issues of proficiency and fluency, to discuss how the language is actually deployed and how it manifests itself semiotically in the local linguistic ecology. She stresses the great diversity of ways in which the language appears, and helps the reader get a more nuanced view of how the language is used. She also juxtaposes and demonstrates the contrast between official language policy: which tries to maintain the foreignness of English while protecting local ‘Indonesian-ness’, and the actual ways English ‘seeps’ into the popular mind and provides messages to the people.

In Chap. 14, Fausa Hasan Siddiqui and Runita Sahai Marwa continue our look at English in the Expanding Circle, with a consideration of the conflicting interests of the status, function and challenges of English in the Middle-Eastern context of Oman. The study first provides background on the historical role of English in the Middle-East, and addresses the ambivalence towards English which is also observed in earlier chapters. Via an empirical study that employs both qualitative and quantitative data, the authors gain insight into the attitudes of both students and ELT practitioners. Similar to Zentz’s chapter on Indonesia, in Oman too there has been a drive by the state for ‘Omanisation’: to preserve the region’s rich cultural identity. As such, the authors express that in spite of some increase in the functions, efforts to bring English into the mainstream in Oman are not promising.

Chapter 15, by Hyejeong Ahn and Lee Seongyoung, takes us to East Asia, and considers the functions of English in education, entertainment and advertising in South Korea. It seems there is less ambivalence towards English in Korea than some other Expanding Circle contexts, and its influence continues to grow. Similar to Chap. 14 by Zentz, Ahn and Lee find that while in the education domain English of a quite ‘standardised’ form is used, mainly as a means of academic assessment, in the everyday reality of TV dramas and online advertising, a quite hybridised, code-mixed, and nativised form of English prevails. This form of English helps to index identity, and to present products as more upscale. As such, English in TV and advertising is for local consumption, an important point to explain the seemingly contradictory roles of English (especially in the Expanding Circle). This point is well drawn out by Seargeant (2011) vis-à-vis the neighboring context of Japan.

Chapter 16 is also situated in Korea, and provides a touching and valuable look into an under-researched area in ELT/SLA and world Englishes: the learning of English as a foreign language by the elderly. Interestingly, few other chapters in this volume consider issues of generational difference in the functions of English, with most observing that it is the young who are the main drivers of expanded English use. But in a fascinating turn, Jamie Shinhee Lee here looks into the learning of English by elderly Koreans at a senior center in a working-class neighborhood. These Korean elderly are keenly aware of how their lack of English communication ability drives a wedge between them and their grandchildren, and it is impressive that they take action to address this problem, in spite of the obvious anxiety it causes them.

The chapters in this part outline the complexity of English globally, but also demonstrate that English belongs to everyone in today’s interconnected world.

1.3.4 Part IV

There are two characterising features that make the volume unique. The first of these, as elucidated in the discussions above, is its focus, which is on the multitude of variations reported by distinguished ELT practitioners from myriad of contexts around the world. Engaging with various models of analysis, they implicate that the socio-political complexities not only problematise the issues but also poise barriers for the practice of these functional variations. The second feature is the socio-educational perspectives from which the variations have been addressed. The chapters in Parts I, II and III, as indicated above, engage in discussion of the multiplicity of speakers/ users and ways in which they employ the variations for a range of functions of English. While most chapters in this volume have re-iterated Gargesh’s four functions English fulfils, vis-à-vis, the auxiliary, supplementary, complementary and equative (see Gargesh 2006, Zentz, this volume), the issue that they have addressed differently is their pedagogy. A number of chapters in this volume have, for example, explored the tension between the ‘imposed paradigm’ which questions the legitimacy, validity and relevance of education; and the ‘new paradigm’ which advocates for recognition, establishment and acceptance of the emerging Englishes (see Kachru 2011; Honna this volume). Honna, for example, suggests in his introduction that the pedagogical perspective the chapters of the volume have taken is “a useful approach to ELT, as its policy decisions, curriculum and material development, and classroom practice, all demand careful examination of the complexities and concerns of adopting varieties of English locally appropriate for educational purposes” (ibid).

Through their pedagogical perspective, chapters of this part examine the existing complexities and emerging concerns of adopting local Englishes. These chapters largely suggest that the socio-linguistic landscape of English has changed or is changing rapidly, and in order to manage this change, there is a need for adapting a Teaching English as an International Language (EIL) approach, and ‘…teaching English as a heterogeneous language with multiple grammars, vocabulary, accents, and pragmatic discourse conventions’ (Marlina 2016, p. 7). They implicate that in the growing concerns and debate about the pedagogy of the variations of English, there is a need to re-visit and re-examine the relevance of the existing exonormative pedagogic paradigm. Making a case for endonormative teaching models, these chapters explicate the need of re-evaluating and re-developing policies, procedures, practices, and most importantly, appropriating ‘pedagogically local and linguistically accountable’ teaching materials (Ibid, p. 10). They make an argument for English as an international lingua franca that ‘allows diverse peoples to connect directly and can lead to a safer, more prosperous, and more sustainable world based on improved international understanding, and to which the ELT profession can make a significant contribution’ (Rahman, this volume).

Ahmar Mahboob (Chap. 17), for example, situates his theoretical standpoint in the practices and policies of the socio-political complexities of contemporary Pakistan. Based on an empirical analysis of English as MOI, the chapter makes a compelling and thought provoking argument that the current elitist approaches to teaching English and the unequitable provisions allocated therein neither support learning English nor help sustain learning through English. He makes a strong case for re-examining the existing pedagogic practices in search for more appropriate ‘functions’ based teaching provisions. Similarly, Saran Shiroza (Chap. 18), pointing out the discrepancies between the official purpose of teaching English and the actual practices in Japan’s ELT, raises persuasive concerns by saying that emphasis on the dominant inner circle model of pedagogy does not and will not serve Japan’s purpose of teaching English. Illustrating inconsistencies in what is targeted at the decision-making level and what is desired at the practical level, she denounces the imported communicative language teaching (CLT) modelled ELT and agrees with Moody (this volume) in suggesting that authentic Englishes can be taught in ELT, and for that, locally developed models should be emphasised.

Nobuyuki Hino and Setsuko Oda (Chap. 19), summarising the approach, design, and procedure for CELFIL, the current learning of content and English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) aimed at helping students in university EMI classes to learn linguistic as well as socilolinguistic skills in EIL, or de-Anglo-Americanised English for international communication, point out discrepancies in the targeted Anglo-Americanised English and the practice of the most common de-Americanised Japanese English. They argue that in order for English to meet the local demand and serve local functions, the local varieties, rather than the unreasonably over- emphasised Americanised English, should be taught beyond Anglophone frame of reference, by taking advantage of EMI (English-Medium Instruction) classes. They view pedagogy of English from an eclectic and integrative position in which the multiple paradigms of global Englishes, including WE (world Englishes) and ELF (English as a Lingua Franca), are combined with EIL for pedagogical practice. In Chap. 20, Panchanan Mohanty reflects on the teaching and learning of English in India. He reminds us that although India is in the Outer Circle, and has its own recognized variety of acrolectal English with endonormative standards, for many of the less affluent or rural citizens in India, English serves limited functions, and gaining access to that variety remains a challenge in terms of mastering an intelligible phonology, and other orthographic and syntactic features of standard Indian English.

Prem Phyak and Bal Krishna Sharma (Chap. 21) investigate English language education policies that largely serve neo-liberal ideologies, and identify discrepancies in the functions that the English as a medium of instruction (EMI) policy in Nepal serve, and how it is experienced in practice. They argue that the choice of forms (variations) in teaching English, and its functions, influence the socio-cultural dynamics of how English is practiced at the local level. Finally, in Chap. 22, Daniel Davis elucidates the ensuing discussions that the chapters of the volume in general have made and the emergent issues that are set to dominate the future discourses and research of English language teaching.

The chapters in this volume, though based in different contexts, have, as we indicated in the beginning of the chapter, taken local, intra-national, regional and at times global perspectives to espousing English as a host of languages which we have referred to in this volume as functional variations. The scholars represented here have considered it as (a) a family of languages appropriated by different speech communities to serve their interests and purposes; (b) a host of functional variations emerging from its practice in different socio-cultural contexts, each one distinct at institutional, socio-occupational and textual levels; and (c) constantly evolving and changing all the time (see also Yiakoumetti 2012). The authors acknowledge the fact that functional variations, originating from a multitude of contexts and embedding local interests and values, are often idiosyncratic in nature, highly cultural and compromising in global intelligibility, and therefore, may face antipathy at societal and pedagogical levels. Nonetheless, rejecting the notion of English as a colonial gift or liability, the authors ubiquitously suggest that as a broad range of languages, it is a valuable form of linguistic capital, often associated with users’ identity and their relationship with others in the community, and thus may be used to develop perspective consciousness and widen other dimensions that will contribute to the learning of global issues and fostering international understanding (see Rahman, this volume). The users of these variations may not have a shared norm, yet they have mutually recognisable local practices which allow them to negotiate with diverse local varieties and express community-specific values (see also Canagarajah et al. 2012). At the educational level, the authors unanimously suggest that the teaching practices of Englishes are commonly thought to need a standard; however, the perception and interpretation of the term ‘standard’ is problematic as there are a number of social and political issues that come into play (see for example, Ahn and Lee’s chapter, this volume). Therefore, rather than developing one standard, which will undoubtedly polarise the practitioners, there is a need of a change in attitude as well as in ELT policy. There is a need also of modelling the change and the changing nature of English that is contextually desirable, adaptable and comprehensible. There is a clear need for developing teaching approaches and outlining a description of materials, which allow practitioners to choose and appropriate, rather than prescribe and impose.