Abstract
This chapter demonstrates the centrality of “Sepharad” to Spanish liberals and their Jewish interlocutors in debates over religious tolerance, from the end of the Enlightenment through the early twentieth century. Such an examination illustrates how a case considered marginal might illuminate the dynamics of better known examples of the so-called “Jewish Question” in modern Europe, just as it undermines existing assumptions about the place of Jews in debates about race, hybridity and nationhood. By illustrating how the exceptional might be considered paradigmatic, the chapter highlights the surprising centrality of Spain in our study of Jewish modernity, as well as in the construction of religious and liberal political geographies in modern Europe.
I thank Abigail Green and Simon Levis Sullam for their insightful comments and Paul K. Eiss and Nitai Shinan for their feedback.
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Notes
- 1.
For discussion of the war of independence and Cádiz Cortes and the constitutional crisis from a peninsular perspective, see Artola, Los orígenes de la España contemporánea; Josep. La crisis del Antiguo régimen 1808–1833; and Junco, Mater Dolorosa: 119–49. For Cádiz in its broader European context see, Luna-Fabritius, “Defining the borders,” Centro de Investigación y Docencia Económicas, División de Historia 78 (December, 2012), http://repositorio-digital.cide.edu/handle/11651/984 and the chapters on Spain in Hook and Iglesias-Rogers, eds., Translations In Times of Disruption. For a transatlantic perspective see Eastman and Perea, eds., The Rise of Constitutional Government in the Iberian Atlantic World.
- 2.
For discussion of this tension and the Catholic dimension of Spanish liberalism see, Fernández Sebastián, “Toleration and Freedom of Expression in the Hispanic World,” 159–97 and Portillo Valdés, “De la Monarquía Católica a la Nación de los Católicos,” 17–35.
- 3.
For example, Llorente, Histoire critique de l’Inquisition d’Espagne; Puigblanch, La Inquisición sin máscara. See Shinan, Ḳorbanot o ashemim, for further discussion of these texts.
- 4.
See Friedman, Recovering Jewish Spain and Shinan, Korbanot o ashemim. Moreover, as Andrew Bush has suggested, perhaps only the abolition of the Inquisition could eliminate, or at least mitigate, the threat that study of the Jewish past was tantamount to Judaizing. See Bush, “Beginnings of Modern Jewish Studies in Spain”, in Flesler, Linhard and Pérez Melgosa eds. “Revisiting Jewish Spain in the Modern Era,” 20.
- 5.
Paquette, “Introduction: Liberalism in the Early Nineteenth-Century World,” 1–13. See also Paquette, “The Study of Political Thought,” 437–48.
- 6.
See for instance the path breaking study Colonialism and the Jews, Katz, Leff, and Mandel eds.
- 7.
Fernández Sebastián, “A Distorting Mirror,” 166–175. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01916599.2014.914309
- 8.
Ibid.
- 9.
See for instance, Martínez Marina, Antigüedades hispano-hebreas.
- 10.
An example of such earlier debate appears as early as the seventeenth-century in reformist arbitrista literature exploring the reasons for Spain’s alleged economic decline, suggesting the expulsion of the Jews and Muslims may have factored as one of the causes for said decline. On the arbitristas see Nieto, “El pensamiento económico, político y social de los arbitristas,” 235–354 and Feros, Talking about Spain. For Enlightenment-era interest in the Jewish past, see Hauben, “The Enlightenment and Minorities,” 1–19 and Shinan, Kurbanot o Ashemim.
- 11.
Andreu, El descubrimiento de España.
- 12.
Manzano Moreno and Pérez Garzón, “A Difficult Nation?: History and Nationalism in Contemporary Spain”; Junco, Mater Dolorosa.
- 13.
Boyd, Historia Patria, 70–4, 80–1.
- 14.
Peiró Martín, Los Guardianes de la Historia. La Historiografía Académica de la Restauración; Junco, Mater Dolorosa; Boyd, Historia Patria.
- 15.
See also Geary, The Myth of Nations.
- 16.
See Boyd, Historia Patria.
- 17.
See Gómez, Orientalismo y Nacionalismo Español; Friedman, Recovering Jewish Spain and Eric Calderwood, Colonial al-Andalus Spain and the Making of Modern Moroccan Culture.
- 18.
The term “convivencia,” originally applied by a school of Spanish historians to the relations of Muslims, Christians and Jews in Medieval Spain, suggests mutual interpenetration and creative influence as well as mutual friction and rivalry. See Glick, “Convivencia: An introductory Note”, 1–8 and Nirenberg, Communities of Violence. See also, Ray, “Beyond Tolerance and Persecution,” 1–18.
- 19.
Joskowicz, The Modernity of Others.
- 20.
While most publications note Amador’s birth year as 1818, Jesús L. Serrano Reyes has recently convincingly demonstrated that Amador was born in 1816. See Serrano Reyes, “Sobre Fechas y Nombres,” 121–36.
- 21.
Friedman, “Jewish History as ‘Historia Patria.’
- 22.
Amador de los Ríos, Estudios históricos, políticos y literarios sobre los judíos de España, and the new edition of the work with a preliminary study by Nitai Shinan, XV-CLIII. In 1847, Adolfo de Castro y Rossi published Historia de los Judíos en España desde los tiempos de su establecimiento hasta principios del siglo actual in Cádiz, but his study was less scholarly and Amador already began publishing his work as a series of essays in 1845.
- 23.
On the German-Jewish myth of “Sephardic supremacy” see Schorsch, “The Myth of Sephardic Supremacy,” 47–66. For more recent discussion, see Shachpkow, Role Model and Countermodel—a translation of his 2011 German book, Vorbild und Gegenbild, and Efron, German Jewry and the Allure of the Sephardic. For discussion of the myth of Sepharad as a politicized cultural metaphor in different national contexts, see Halevi-Wise ed., Sephardism: Spanish Jewish History.
- 24.
For Amador’s personal experience of persecution due to liberal beliefs, see Friedman, Jewish History as ‘Historia Patria,’ and Shinan, estudio preliminar.
- 25.
“Consideraciones histórico-políticas,” January 1855, 205.
- 26.
Ibid. At the end of Estudios, Amador applies the same interpretation to the riots against Jews in Central Europe in the wake of the revolutions of 1848.
- 27.
These were not mass politics political parties in the modern sense, but parties of notables with a fluid organization based on a network of clientelism & caciquisimo (political bossism) which served to guarantee a desired electoral victory. The significance of “Moderate” here signaled the compromise between Absolutism and the Radical Liberals.
- 28.
The period after the African War (1859–1860), also marked the beginning of notable Jewish resettlement in Spain. On resettlement of Ottoman Jews in the Iberian Peninsula, see Abrevaya Stein, Extraterritorial Dreams.
- 29.
These appeals and discussions in the Cortes, as well as the resettlement of a number of Sephardi families from Bayonne in Spain, are discussed by Manrique Escudero, Los judíos ante los cambios políticos en España en 1868.
- 30.
Pérez Galdós, Gloria.
- 31.
Cánovas had been part of the Liberal Union Party and the new party he formed in 1874 what was known as the Liberal-Conservative, or more commonly, Conservative Party. What fused liberal constitutionalism (Cánovas redacted the constitution of 1876) with more conservative ideas and the monarchy acted as an arbiter. It consisted mainly of former Moderate Liberals and Liberal Unionists who were also monarchists. Cánovas also devised was it known as the “pacific turn” designed to alternate power between the Conservative and Liberal parties.
- 32.
For further discussion of the production of official history under the restoration regime and the role of Sepharad in this endeavor see Friedman, Recovering ‘Jewish Spain’.
- 33.
See Friedman, “Reconquering ‘Sehparad’,” 35–60.
- 34.
The speech titled “Jewish History and its Methods,” was translated and published in the Real Academia de la Historia’s Boletín de Real Academia de la Historia and also appeared as the last chapter of Jacobs’ book Jewish Ideals (1896). See also, Friedman, Recovering ‘Jewish Spain’.
- 35.
Ibid.
- 36.
Ibid.
- 37.
See for instance Bitzan, “Leopold Zunz and the Meanings of Wissenschaft,” 233–54.
- 38.
See Balfour, The End of the Spanish Empire 1898–1923. As in Spain’s earlier involvement in North Africa, the Spanish presented themselves as liberators to the Sephardi Jews whom they encountered, proclaiming to be liberating them from the yoke of their Muslim oppressors; a colonial strategy reminiscent of that employed by the French in North Africa such as discussed by scholars such as Ethan Katz, Joshua Schreier, Emily Gottreich and Susan Miller among others. On philosephardism in North Africa see, Uriel Macías Kapón, “Los cronistas de la guerra de África y el primer reencuentro con los sefardíes,” in Los judíos en la España contemporánea: historia y visiones, 1898–1998, Uriel Macías, Yolanda Moreno Koch y Ricardo Izquierdo Benito eds., 45–60; Rohr, “Spaniards of the Jewish Type,” 61–75; Daniel J Schroeter, “Philo-Sephardism, Anti-Semitism and Arab Nationalism: Muslims and Jews in the Spanish Protectorate of Morocco during the Period of the Third Reich,” in Nazism, the Holocaust and the Middle East: Arab and Turkish Responses, ed. Frank Nicosia and Boĝaç Ergene, 179–215; and Elisaeth Bollarinos Allard, Enemies or brothers? Defining Spanish identity in relation to Muslim and Jewish cultures in colonial Morocco.
- 39.
See Goode, Impurity of Blood.
- 40.
For discussion of Castelar’s views of the Jews and how they shifted in the context of the Spanish ‘rediscovery’ of Sephardi Jews in North Africa and the battle over libertad de cultos see Shinan, “Emilio Castelar y los judíos: una reevaluación,” 101–18.
- 41.
See Goode, Impurity of Blood, 182–6 for discussion of Ángel Pulido’s philosephardism and analysis of its place of in the history and development of racialist thought in Spain, and Rohr, “Spaniards of the Jewish Type.” For Pulido’s own writing on the topic see Los israelitas españoles y el idioma castellano, and Españoles sin patria y la raza sefardí.
- 42.
See Pulido, Los Israelitas españoles y el idioma castellano, and the reprinted edition, with an introduction by Garzón. Initially, the philosephardic movement focused on the Jews in the Spanish protectorate in Morocco and only later did it expand its operations to the eastern Sephardi diaspora in the Balkans, Greece and Turkey.
- 43.
See Friedman, Reconquering Sepharad for discussion of the connections between philosephardism and antisemitism.
- 44.
For example, Casabó y Pagés, La España Judía (1891).
- 45.
For the Royal Order see, Gaceta de Madrid 4:341 (7 Dec. 1915): 625. The correspondence between Spanish Arabist Miguel Asin Palacios and Jewish Arabist (and one of the founders of Islamic Studies) Ignaz Goldziher reveals their involvement in his appointment. See Marín, de la Puente, Rodríguez Mediano, Pérez Alcalde, Los espistolarios de Julián Ribera Tarragó y Miguel Asín Palacios. For further discussion of Yahuda see the special forum on Yahuda in The Jewish Quarterly Review 109.3 (Summer 2019), Michal Rose Friedman and Allyson Gonzalez eds. and for Yahuda in Spain the essays in the issue by Friedman and Gonzalez.
- 46.
It is commonly stated that the Miller Chair of Jewish History, Literature and Institutions established at Columbia University in 1930 and first held by Salo W. Baron was the first chair of Jewish history in a secular Western University. See for instance, Yerushalmi, Zakhor, 81, and Gonzalez and Friedman, JQR 109.3.
- 47.
See Yahuda, Abraham Shalom, Dr. Weizmann’s Errors on Trial, and Friedman, “Orientalism between Empires: Abraham Shalom Yahuda at the Intersection of Sepharad, Zionism, and Imperialism.”
- 48.
“Professor Yahuda Vindicated,” The Reform Advocate 59 (5 Jun. 1920): 413–15.
- 49.
Ibid., and Gaceta de Madrid 4:341 (7 Dec. 1915): 625–8.
- 50.
A.S. Yahuda, Interview for the Jewish Chronicle, May 19th, 1919.
- 51.
A. S. Yahuda, “King Alfonso XIII and the Jews”; “Spanish Zionism,” The A.S. Yahuda Archive, The National Library of Israel, Jerusalem. ARC. Ms. Var. Yah 38 073754; Gaceta de Madrid 4:341 (7 Dec. 1915): 625–8; and BRAH 65:5 (1 Oct. 1914): 415–19. See also Friedman, Orientalism between Empires.
- 52.
The reasons for Yahuda’s resignation from his position are more complex than space allows me to discuss here. For some further discussion see García-Jalón de la Lama, Don Abraham Yahuda y la Universidad Central de Madrid; Gonzalez, “Abraham S. Yahuda (1877–1951) and the Politics of Modern Jewish Scholarship”; Friedman, Recovering Jewish Spain.
- 53.
The request insisted on the importance of Yahuda sharing his new research on the Pentateuch with British scholars.
- 54.
Ibid.
- 55.
Ibid.
- 56.
In 1923, amidst general discontent over recent ill-fated campaigns in Morocco, the Restoration government came to an end by a military coup led general by Miguel Primo de Rivera (1870–1930) and backed by Alfonso XIII. Primo Rivera was named Prime Minister by the king and established a dictatorship which lasted through 1930.
- 57.
On this final stage of the Second Republic see Pío, El derrumbe de la Segunda República.
- 58.
See my discussion of the commemoration in Friedman, Recovering ‘Jewish Spain’. News and discussion of the event also extended to North America and Palestine. For North American discussion see also, Friedman, Celebrating Maimonides’ 800th Birthday in Córdoba: http://www.library.upenn.edu/exhibits/cajs/fellows15/cajs2015.html, accessed August 1, 2018.
- 59.
Franco’s vision of the Hispanic “race” is most famously depicted in his screenplay “Raza” written under a pseudonym. On the antisemitism of Franco and his regime see Rohr, The Spanish Right and the Jews, as well as Ojeda Mata’s discussion of the expulsion of Barcelona’s Ottoman Jews in Identidades Ambivalentes. On the other hand, the Franco regime established the Arias Montanto Institute of Sephardi and Hebrew Studies as part of the National Research Council and maintained cordial relations with Madrid’s Jewish community (see Friedman, Recovering Jewish Spain). As recent studies have suggested, it may be argued that racial classification under Franco was in the main reserved for individuals of the political left and their offspring.
- 60.
The reference here to the “imperial nation-state” is to Gary Wilder’s formulation. For French colonial employment of Jews in linguistic and ethnographic surveys see for example, Kosansky, “When Jews Speak Arabic,” 5–39, and for questions of France’s triangular relationship with its Jewish and Muslim populations in metropole and colony, Katz, The Burdens of Brotherhood.
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Friedman, M.R. (2020). Unsettling the “Jewish Question” from the Margins of Europe: Spanish Liberalism and Sepharad. In: Green, A., Levis Sullam, S. (eds) Jews, Liberalism, Antisemitism. Palgrave Critical Studies of Antisemitism and Racism. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-48240-4_8
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