Abstract
Gold mining has become a significant new form of organized crime activity in Colombia, where criminal groups continue to shift their operations from cocaine trafficking into gold mining. This chapter focuses on how the Gulf Clan has diversified into gold mining in Colombia, why gold extraction is embedded in other organized crime activities, and how diversification accelerates ecocide. By positioning theoretical concepts within the environmental crime continuum and reflected on the ecocidal harms related to gold production, this chapter contributes to organized crime theory and green criminology. The empirical findings presented in this chapter are based on fieldwork carried out in Colombia’s Darién jungle between 2017 and 2019. The information gathered shows how the Gulf Clan transformed their features in order to diversify into the gold business. Key issues discussed include the legal-illegal interface, the role of social embeddedness, and how the local communities are impacted by ecocidal harms.
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Notes
- 1.
To conceal the identities of my informants, pseudonyms are used in this study.
- 2.
This research is funded by the Dutch Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO). Research project: ‘The Diversification of Organized Crime into the Illegal Trade in Natural Resources’‚ 016.Veni.195.040.
- 3.
Darién is geologically one of the youngest portions of land in the Americas (Girot, 2002).
- 4.
The Cueva were indigenous people who lived in the Darién region and were completely exterminated by the effects of Spanish colonization in the sixteenth century.
- 5.
For instance, “rebellious” indigenous people in Darién were killed, and slaves brought from the interior replaced them (Runk, 2017).
- 6.
In 1575, African slaves that were working for the Spanish settlers on the isthmus were already numbering 8630 (Heckadon-Moreno, 1997).
- 7.
Sierra Club v. Adams, 578 F.2d 389, 391 (D.C. Cir. 1978).
- 8.
The Darién National Park and Los Katíos National Park were declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1981 and 1994, respectively.
- 9.
The Pan American Highway ends in Yaviza, Panama, and begins again in Lomas Aisladas, Colombia.
- 10.
The Colombian state recognized Afro-descendant communities’ rights of collective territory, and hundreds of communities formed councils to officially claim land rights (see e.g., Jaramillo, 2014; Restrepo, 2004). The paramilitary push attempted to stop the process of granting of land titles to Afro-descendant communities in the area (Suman, 2007).
- 11.
For example, between 1996 and 2001 an estimated 50,000 people have been displaced from communities in Chocó Department that are close to the Panamanian border, including: Río Sucio, Jurado, Cacarica, Unguía, and Acandí.
- 12.
Don Mario started recruiting members from other AUC groups that were demobilizing, and Los Urabeños became one of the wealthiest groups in 2008 with around 3000 members (Ellis, 2018).
- 13.
His brother, Otoniel, publicly offered USD 1000 for every police officer killed in Antioquia as a reprisal for the death of Juan de Dios Úsuga (Ellis, 2018).
- 14.
Ecocide is defined as “the extensive destruction, damage to or loss of ecosystem(s) of a given territory, whether by human agency or by other causes, to such an extent that peaceful enjoyment by the inhabitants of that territory has been severely diminished” (Higgins, 2010, p. 63).
- 15.
Although commodity prices around the world rose between 2004 and 2014, the prices for gold increased four-fold from 2002 to 2012 (Tubb, 2015, p. 724).
- 16.
A drug mule is a courier who smuggles drugs across the border, usually driven by poverty or a lack of alternative jobs (Zaitch, 2002).
- 17.
A crime expert clarified that the Gulf Clan finds prostitutes, sometimes in cooperation with human traffickers, for the miners in the mining area. “They recruit girls from different parts of Colombia because the miners are also from the different regions (…) then they are moved to the mines where the men work.” However, local informants clarified that many girls who are working in the mines in Darién are actually locals who are looking for economic opportunities, as Maria in Acandí highlighted: “The mine is a man’s world, with a lot of prostitution. Of course, this situation is attractive for young girls who want to earn some money! But the girls, some who are too young, have to obey [the Gulf Clan] and pay them. Some of the girls are abused sexually and physically, and in the end they don’t make very much money.”
- 18.
Felipe, a miner from Acandí, who was threatened with death, explained: “I’m here because it wasn’t my time to die. But they sent me a text message that said they were going to kill me. I am still alive, but others… They [miners] usually go over there [illegal mines] you know, but they don’t work with them; they work in the artisanal mines close by. When they [miners] come out with gold, the crime groups kill them. They kill them and take the gold!”
- 19.
Martina, one of the Afro-community counsellors, began to cry after she explained the complexity of the situation: “People are killed by those people. Yes, we are threatened, and we have to… we have to work with them.”
- 20.
Dario, one of the village elders in Bijao, recounted the story: “The paramilitares [paramilitaries] arrived that day, they were looking for people. (…) I remember how they cut off his head and started playing soccer with it, over here on the field. We couldn’t do anything. They were heavily armed, you know, and we were so scared. You never forget that!”
- 21.
A few days later, I arrived by lancha (small boat) in Juin Phubuur, an indigenous Wounaan village in Los Katíos National Park, just a few kilometres from the Colombia-Panama border, with traditional wooden houses on stilts, no electricity or drinking water, in the middle of the jungle. The indigenous people explained how their sons were recruited by criminal groups , and were sometimes killed because they were no longer of any “use.” In response, the indigenous leaders keep the boys and young men out of site when the organized crime groups arrive, explained Solarte, a resident of Juin Phubuur: “Despite our internal rules, young people who would like to earn money, join them. The groups offer them money, and then they start getting involved in criminal activities. But in the end many of them disappear…”
- 22.
One of the conditions was that I would not take any photographs without approval.
- 23.
- 24.
- 25.
Orlando, a miner from Acandí Seco explains that, “The gold is transported to a bigger town where a helicopter can get into that area, yes. And then it is transported to Medellín. Otherwise you get killed, or get robbed! Don’t forget it’s about gold!”
- 26.
- 27.
While Pedro, an environmentalist, showed me a luxury hotel in Triganá, paid for with illegal money by members of the Gulf Clan in collaboration with officials, he explained the popularity of laundering drug money through mines or gold companies.
- 28.
For example, in Colombia, a leader of a paramilitary group revealed in hearings how organized crime groups involved in drug smuggling launder their illegal money: “Gold is bought in Panama and is carried to Colombia where it is distributed to local Colombian mayors. These authorities send the gold to the Central Bank and report it as local production. Then they receive the corresponding royalties and keep most of the money for themselves” (Kuramoto, 2012, p. 6).
- 29.
This is similar to other cases in the context of organized crime aiming to have control over natural resources resulting in conflicts with local crime groups, like Russian mafia’s infiltration into caviar or Chinese organized crime involvement in rhino horn businesses (Van Uhm, 2016, 2019; Van Uhm & Siegel, 2016).
- 30.
To get the machines into the Darién jungle, “[t]hey disassemble the machinery, and then they took the parts on horses, and then they assembled all the machinery there. There was no other way to do this,” explained a former miner in Playon.
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van Uhm, D. (2020). The Diversification of Organized Crime into Gold Mining: Domination, Crime Convergence, and Ecocide in Darién, Colombia. In: Zabyelina, Y., van Uhm, D. (eds) Illegal Mining. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46327-4_5
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