Abstract
There has been an exponential increase in the number of medications demonstrated to be effective for the treatment of anxiety and anxiety disorders. This chapter provides a brief review of the history and evolution of psychopharmacologic strategies. Data for efficacy and adverse effects of these medications for different anxiety disorders are presented based on clinical trial reports so that the reader can compare and contrast the advantages and disadvantages of different classes of medications for treatment of each anxiety disorder described in the International Classification of Diseases and the Diagnostics and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders over the past three decades. Specifically, this chapter describes current evidence of medications for anxiety disorders for five disorders: generalized anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder, panic disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. For some drugs, this chapter includes the “Special Populations” sections that show evidence specific to children, adolescents, and elderly patients if available. This chapter also provides a table that summarizes the efficacy of each drug for these five disorders. The other table summarizes pharmacological properties of medications commonly used to treat anxiety disorders. At present, clinicians have a wide array of medications available for the treatment of anxiety and anxiety disorders. The breadth of accessible treatment options greatly facilitates our ability to help patients. Nevertheless, appropriate diagnosis and rapport are still the foundations of any pharmacological intervention that is made with the patients.
Previous edition authors were Tammy C. Saah, Steven J. Garlow, Mark Hyman Rapaport, Deidre M. Edwards, Kathryn L. Hale and Rachel E. Maddux
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abell, S. R., & El-Mallakh, R. S. (2021). Serotonin-mediated anxiety: How to recognize and treat it. Current Psychiatry, 20(11), 37–40.
Abramowitz, J. S. (1997). Effectiveness of psychological and pharmacological treatments for obsessive-compulsive disorder: A quantitative review. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65(1), 44–52.
Ak, M., Bulut, S. D., Bozhurt, A., et al. (2011). Aripiprazole augmentation of serotonin reuptake inhibitors in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: A 10-week open-label study. Advances in Therapy, 28(4), 341–348.
Alaghband-Rad, J., & Hakimshooshtary, M. (2009). A randomized controlled clinical trial of citalopram versus fluoxetine in children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). European Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 18, 131–135.
Alaka, K. J., Noble, W., Montejo, A., Dueñas, H., Munshi, A., Strawn, J. R., Lenox-Smith, A., Ahl, J., Bidzan, L., Dorn, B., & Ball, S. (2014). Efficacy and safety of duloxetine in the treatment of older adult patients with generalized anxiety disorder: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 29(9), 978–986.
Allgulander, C., Mangano, R., Zhang, J., et al. (2004). Efficacy of venlafaxine ER in patients with social anxiety disorder: A double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group comparison with paroxetine. Human Psychopharmacology, 19, 387–396.
Askari, N., Moin, M., Sanati, M., et al. (2012). Granisetron adjunct to fluvoxamine for moderate to severe obsessive-compulsive disorder: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. CNS Drugs, 26(1), 883–892.
Asnis, G. M., Hameedi, F. A., Goddard, A. W., et al. (2001). Fluvoxamine in the treatment of panic disorder: A multi-center, double-blind, placebo-controlled study in outpatients. Psychiatric Research, 103(1), 1–14.
Baker, J. F., Cates, M. E., & Luthin, D. R. (2018). d-cycloserine in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Mental Health Clinician, 7(2), 88–94.
Bakish, D. (1992). Reversible monoamine-a inhibitors in panic disorder. Clinical Neuropharmacology, 15(Suppl 1, Pt A), 432A–433A.
Baldwin, D., Bobes, J., Stein, D. J., et al. (1999). Paroxetine in social phobia/social anxiety disorder. Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Paroxetine Study Group. British Journal of Psychiatry, 175, 120–126.
Baldwin, D. S., Asakura, S., Koyama, T., Hayano, T., Hagino, A., Reines, E., & Larsen, K. (2016). Efficacy of escitalopram in the treatment of social anxiety disorder: A meta-analysis versus placebo. European Neuropsychopharmacology: The Journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 26(6), 1062–1069.
Ballenger, J. C., Burrows, G. D., DuPont, R. L. J., et al. (1988). Aprazolam in panic disorder and agoraphobia: Results from a multicenter trial. I. Efficacy in short-term treatment. Archives of General Psychiatry, 45(5), 413–422.
Ballenger, J. C., Wheadon, D. E., Steiner, M., et al. (1998). Double-blind, fixed-dose, placebo-controlled study of paroxetine in the treatment of panic disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155(1), 36–42.
Bandelow, B., Behnke, K., Lenoir, S., et al. (2004). Sertraline versus paroxetine in the treatment of panic disorder: An acute, double-blind noninferiority comparison. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 65, 405–413.
Bandelow, B., Chouinard, G., Bobes, J., et al. (2010). Extended-release quetiapine fumarate (quetiapine XR): A once-daily monotherapy effective in generalized anxiety disorder. Data from a randomized, double-blind, placebo- and active-controlled study. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 13, 305–320.
Baniasadi, M., Hosseini, G., Bordbar, M. R. F., et al. (2014). Effect of pregabalin augmentation in treatment of patients with combat-related chronic posttraumatic stress disorder: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Psychiatric Practice, 20(6), 419–427.
Barnett, S. D., Kramer, M. L., Casat, C. D., Connor, K. M., & Davidson, J. R. (2002). Efficacy of olanzapine in social anxiety disorder: A pilot study. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 16(4), 365–368.
Bartzokis, G., Lu, P., Turner, J., et al. (2004). Adjunctive risperidone in the treatment of chronic combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 474–479.
Becker, M. E., Hertzberg, M. A., Scott, D., Moore, S. D., et al. (2007). A placebo-controlled trial of bupropion SR in the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 27, 193–197.
Berlant, J. L. (2001). Topiramate in posttraumatic stress disorder: Preliminary clinical observations. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 62(Suppl 17), 60–63.
Berlant, J. L. (2004). Prospective open-label study of add-on and monotherapy topiramate in civilians with chronic nonhallucinatory posttraumatic stress disorder. BMC Psychiatry, 4, 24.
Berlant, J. L., & van Kammen, D. P. (2002). Open-label topiramate as primary or adjunctive therapy in chronic civilian posttraumatic stress disorder: A preliminary report. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 63, 15–20.
Berlin, H. A., Koran, L. M., Jenke, M. A., et al. (2011). Double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of topiramate augmentation in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 72(5), 716–721.
Bisserbe, J. C., Lane, R. M., & Flament, M. F. (1997). A double-blind comparison of sertraline and clomipramine in outpatients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. European Psychiatry, 12, 82–93.
Blanco, C., & Liebowitz, M. R. (1998). Dimensional versus categorical response to moclobemide in social phobia. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 18(4), 344–346.
Bodkin, J. A., Allgulander, C., Llorica, P. M., et al. (2011). Predictors of relapse in a study of duloxetine treatment for patients with generalized anxiety disorder. Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental, 26, 258–266.
Boyer, W. (1995). Serotonin uptake inhibitors are superior to imipramine and alprazolam in alleviating panic attacks: A meta-analysis. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 10(1), 45–49.
Bradwejn, J., Ahokas, A., Stein, D. J., et al. (2005). Venlafaxine extended-release capsules in panic disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 187, 352–359.
Brady, K., Pearlstein, T., Asnis, G. M., et al. (2000). Efficacy and safety of sertraline treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 283(14), 1837–1844.
Brawman-Mintzer, O., Knapp, R. G., & Nieter, P. L. (2005). Adjunctive risperidone in generalized anxiety disorder: A double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 66(10), 1321–1325.
Brawman-Mintzer, O., Knapp, R. G., Rynn, M., et al. (2006). Sertraline treatment for generalized anxiety disorder: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 67(6), 874–881.
Britnell, S. R., Jackson, A. D., Brown, J. N., & Capehart, B. P. (2017). Aripiprazole for post-traumatic stress disorder: A systematic review. Clinical Neuropharmacology, 40(6), 273–278.
Brownlow, J. A., Harb, G. C., & Ross, R. J. (2015). Treatment of sleep disturbances in post-traumatic stress disorder: A review of the literature. Current Psychiatry Reports, 17(6), 41.
Brunet, A., Daniel Saumier, D., Liu, A., et al. (2018). Reduction of PTSD symptoms with pre-reactivation propranolol therapy: A randomized controlled trial. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 175(5), 427–433.
Bruno, A., Mico, U., Pandolfo, G., et al. (2012). Lamotrigine augmentation of serotonin reuptake inhibitors in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: A double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 26(11), 1456–1462.
Butterfeld, M., Becker, M., Connor, K., et al. (2001). Olanzapine in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: A pilot study. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 16(4), 197–203.
Byers, M. G., Allison, K. M., Wendel, C. S., et al. (2010). Prazosin versus quetiapine for nighttime posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in veterans. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 30(2), 225–229.
Bystritsky, A., Rosen, R., Suri, R., et al. (1999). Pilot open-label study of nefazodone in panic disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 10(3), 137–139.
Bystritsky, A., Kerwin, L., Feusner, J. D., & Vapnik, T. (2008). A pilot controlled trial of bupropion XL versus escitalopram in generalized anxiety disorder. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 41(1), 46–51.
Calliard, V., Roullion, F., & Viwl, J. (1999). Comparative effects of low and high doses of clomipramine and placebo in panic disorder: A double-blind controlled study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 99, 51–58.
Careri, J. M., Draine, A. E., Hanover, R., & Liebowitz, M. R. (2015). A 12-week double-blind, placebo-controlled, flexible-dose trial of vilazodone in generalized social anxiety disorder. The Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders, 17(6). https://doi.org/10.4088/PCC.15m01831
Carey, P., Suliman, S., Ganesan, K., et al. (2012). Olanzapine monotherapy in posttraumatic stress disorder: Efficacy in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental, 27, 386–391.
Carpenter, L. L., McDougle, C. J., Epperson, C. N., et al. (1996). A risk-benefit assessment of drugs used in the management of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Drug Safety, 15(2), 116–134.
Cartwright, C., & Hollander, E. (1998). SSRIs in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 8(Suppl 1), 105–113.
Cassano, G. B., Petracca, A., Perugi, G., et al. (1988). Clomipramine for panic disorder: I. The first 10 weeks of a long-term comparison with imipramine. Journal of Affective Disorders, 14(2), 123–127.
Charney, D. S., Woods, S. W., Goodman, W. K., et al. (1986). Drug treatment of panic disorder: The comparative efficacy of imipramine, alprazolam, and trazodone. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 47(12), 580–586.
Choi, K. W., Woo, J. M., Kim, Y. R., et al. (2012). Long-term escitalopram treatment in Korean patients with panic disorder: A prospective, naturalistic, open-label, multicenter trial. Clinical Psychopharmacology and Neuroscience, 10(1), 44–48.
Chouinard, G., Goodman, W., Greist, J., et al. (1990). Results of a double-blind placebo controlled trial of a new serotonin uptake inhibitor, sertraline, in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 26(3), 279–284.
Chung, M. Y., Min, K. H., Jun, Y. J., et al. (2004). Efficacy and tolerability of mirtazapine and sertraline in Korean veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder: A randomized open label study. Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental, 10, 489–494.
Connor, K. M., & Davidson, J. R. (1998). Generalized anxiety disorder: Neurobiological and pharmacotherapeutic perspectives. Biological Psychiatry, 44(12), 1286–1294.
Connor, K. M., Davidson, J. R., Weisler, R., et al. (2006). Tiagabine for posttraumatic stress disorder: Effects of open-label and double-blind discontinuation treatment. Psychopharmacology, 184, 21–25.
Cook, E. H., Wagner, K. D., March, J. S., et al. (2001). Long-term sertraline treatment of children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(10), 1175–1181.
Cox, B. J., Swinson, R. P., Morrison, B., et al. (1993). Clomipramine, fluoxetine, and behavior therapy in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder: A meta-analysis. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 24(2), 149–153.
Cross-National Collaborative Panic Study, Second Phase Investigators. (1992). Drug treatment of panic disorder. Comparative efficacy of alprazolam, imipramine, and placebo. British Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 191–202. (Erratum published in British Journal of Psychiatry, 1992, 161, 724).
Dannon, P. N., Sasson, Y., Hirschmann, S., et al. (2000). Pindolol augmentation in treatment-resistant obsessive compulsive disorder: A double-blind placebo controlled trial. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 10(3), 165–169.
Dannon, P. N., Iancu, I., Lowengrub, K., et al. (2007). A naturalistic long-term comparison study of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in the treatment of panic disorder. Clinical Neuropharmacology, 30(6), 326–334.
Davidson, J., Walker, J. I., & Kilts, C. (1987). A pilot study of phenelzine in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 252–255.
Davidson, J., Kudler, H., Smith, R., et al. (1990). Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder with amitriptyline and placebo. Archives of General Psychiatry, 47(3), 259–266.
Davidson, J. R., DuPont, R. L., Hedges, D., et al. (1999). Efficacy, safety, and tolerability of venlafaxine extended release and buspirone in outpatients with generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 60(8), 528–535.
Davidson, J., Pearlstein, T., Londborg, P., et al. (2001). Efficacy of sertraline in preventing relapse of posttraumatic stress disorder: Results of a 28-week double-blind, placebo-controlled study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158(12), 1974–1981.
Davidson, J., Bose, A., Korotzer, A., et al. (2004). Escitalopram in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder: Double-blind, placebo controlled, flexible-dose study. Depression and Anxiety, 19, 234–240.
Davidson, J., Bose, A., & Wang, Q. (2005). Safety and efficacy of escitalopram in the long-term treatment of generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 66(11), 1441–1446.
Davidson, J., Baldwin, D., Stein, D. J., et al. (2006a). Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder with venlafaxine extended release. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63, 1158–1165.
Davidson, J., Rothbaum, B. O., Tucker, P., et al. (2006b). Venlafaxine extended release in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 26(3), 259–267.
Davidson, J. R., Brady, K., Mellman, T. A., et al. (2007). The efficacy and tolerability of tiagabine in adult patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 27(1), 85–88.
Davidson, J., Allgulander, C., Pollack, M. H., et al. (2008). Efficacy and tolerability of duloxetine in elderly patients with generalized anxiety disorder: A pooled analysis of four randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled studies. Human Psychopharmacology, 23(6), 519–526.
Davis, L. L., Nugent, A. L., Murray, J., et al. (2000). Nefazodone treatment for chronic posttraumatic stress disorder: An open trial. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 20(2), 159–164.
Davis, L. L., Jewell, M. E., Ambrose, S., et al. (2004). A placebo-controlled study of nefazodone for the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 24(3), 291–297.
Davis, L. L., Davidson, J. R., Ward, L. C., et al. (2008). Divalproex in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in a veteran population. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 28(1), 84–88.
Davis, L. L., Pilkinton, P., Lin, C., et al. (2020). A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of mirtazapine for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in veterans. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 81(6), 20m13267.
DeMartinis, N. A., Schweizer, E., & Rickels, K. (1996). An open-label trial of nefazodone in high comorbidity panic disorder. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 57(6), 245–248.
den Boer, J. A. (1998). Pharmacotherapy of panic disorder: Differential efficacy from a clinical viewpoint. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 59(Suppl 8), 30–36.
Denys, D., de Geus, F., van Megen, H., et al. (2004). A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of quetiapine addition in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder refractory to serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 65, 1040–1048.
Detweiler, M. B., Bhuvaneshwar, P., Joseph, C., Jennifer, S. B., Jonna, G. D., & Brian W. L. (2016). Treatment of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Nightmares at a Veterans Affairs Medical Center. Journal of Clinical Medicine Research 5(12). https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm5120117.
Diniz, J. B., Shavitt, R. G., Pereira, C. A. B., et al. (2010). Quetiapine versus clomipramine in the augmentation of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors for the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder: A randomized, open-label trial. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 24(3), 297–307.
Diniz, J. B., Shavitt, R. G., Fossaluza, V., et al. (2011). A double-blind, randomized, controlled trial of fluoxetine plus quetiapine or clomipramine versus fluoxetine plus placebo for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 31(6), 763–768.
Dougherty, D. D., Corse, A. K., Chou, T., Duffy, A., Arulpragasam, A. R., Deckersbach, T., Jenike, M. A., & Keuthen, N. J. (2015). Open-label study of duloxetine for the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 18(2), pyu062.
Dowd, S. M., Zalta, A. K., Burgess, H. J., et al. (2020). Double-blind randomized controlled study of the efficacy, safety and tolerability of eszopiclone vs placebo for the treatment of patients with post-traumatic stress disorder and insomnia. World Journal of Psychiatry, 10(3), 21–28.
Dubuff, E., Ferguson, J., & Londborg, P. (1995). Double-blind comparison of three fixed doses of sertraline and placebo in patients with panic disorder [abstract]. Presented at the Eighth Congress of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology, Venice.
Durgam, S., Gommoll, C., Forero, G., Nunez, R., Tang, X., Mathews, M., & Sheehan, D. V. (2016). Efficacy and safety of vilazodone in patients with generalized anxiety disorder: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, flexible-dose trial. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 77(12), 1687–1694.
El-Mallakh, R. S., & Ali, Z. (2019). Therapeutic implications of the serotonin transporter gene in depression. Biomarkers in Neuropsychiatry, 1, 100004.
Emmanuel, N. P., Lydiard, R. B., & Ballenger, J. C. (1991). Treatment of social phobia with bupropion. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 11(4), 276–277.
Emmanuel, N. P., Brawman-Mintzer, O., Morton, W. A., et al. (2000). Bupropion-SR in treatment of social phobia. Depression and Anxiety, 12(2), 111–113.
Endicott, J., Russell, J. M., Raskin, J., et al. (2007). Duloxetine treatment for role functioning improvement in generalized anxiety disorder: Three independent studies. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 68, 518–524.
English, B. A., Jewell, M., Jewell, G., et al. (2006). Treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in combat veterans with citalopram: An open trial. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 26(1), 84–88.
Escalona, R., Canive, J. M., Calais, L. A., et al. (2002). Fluvoxamine treatment in veterans with combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 15, 29–33.
Fahlen, T., Nilsson, H. L., Borg, K., et al. (1995). Social phobia: The clinical efficacy and tolerability of the monoamine oxidase-A and serotonin uptake inhibitor brofaromine. A double-blind placebo-controlled study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 92(5), 351–358.
Farnia, V., Gharehbaghi, H., Alikhani, M., Almasi, A., Golshani, S., Tatari, F., Davarinejad, O., Salemi, S., Sadeghi Bahmani, D., Holsboer-Trachsler, E., & Brand, S. (2018). Efficacy and tolerability of adjunctive gabapentin and memantine in obsessive compulsive disorder: Double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 104, 137–143.
Feder, A., Costi, S., Rutter, S. B., Collins, A. B., Govindarajulu, U., Jha, M. K., Horn, S. R., Kautz, M., Corniquel, M., Collins, K. A., & Bevilacqua, L. (2021). A randomized controlled trial of repeated ketamine administration for chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 178, 193.
Feltner, D. E., Crockatt, J. G., Dubovsky, S. J., et al. (2003). A randomized, doubleblind, placebo-controlled, fixed-dose, multicenter study of pregabalin in patients with generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 23(3), 240–249.
Feltner, D., Wittchen, H., Kavoussi, R., et al. (2008). Long-term efficacy of pregabalin in generalized anxiety disorder. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 23(1), 18–28.
Feltner, D. E., Liu-Dumaw, M., Schweizer, E., et al. (2011). Efficacy of pregabalin in generalized social anxiety disorder: Results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled, fixed-dose study. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 26(4), 213–220.
Ferguson, J. M., Khan, A., Mangano, R., et al. (2007). Relapse prevention of panic disorder in adult outpatient responders to treatment with venlafaxine extended release. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 68(1), 58–68.
Fineberg, N., Stein, D., Premkumar, P., et al. (2006). Adjunctive quetiapine for serotonin reuptake inhibitor-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled treatment trials. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 21(6), 337–343.
Freeman, C. P., Trimble, M. R., Deakin, J. F., et al. (1994). Fluvoxamine versus clomipramine in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder: A multicenter, randomized, double-blind, parallel group comparison. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 55(7), 301–305.
Freire, R. C., Amrein, R., Mochcovitch, M. D., et al. (2017). A 6-year posttreatment follow-up of panic disorder patients: Treatment with clonazepam predicts lower recurrence than treatment with paroxetine. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 37, 429–434.
Gelenberg, A. J., Lydiard, R. B., Rudolph, R. L., et al. (2000). Efficacy of venlafaxine extended-release capsules in nondepressed outpatients with generalized anxiety disorder: A 6-month randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 283(23), 3082–3088.
Gelernter, C. S., Uhde, T. W., Cimbolic, P., et al. (1991). Cognitive-behavioral and pharmacological treatments of social phobia. A controlled study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48(10), 938–945.
Geller, D., Wagner, K., Emslie, G., et al. (2004). Paroxetine treatment in children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder: A randomized, multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43(11), 1387–1396.
Generoso, M. B., Trevizol, A. P., Kasper, S., Cho, H. J., Cordeiro, Q., & Shiozawa, P. (2017). Pregabalin for generalized anxiety disorder: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 32(1), 49–55.
Ghaleiha, A., Entezari, N., Modabbernia, A., Najand, B., Askari, N., Tabrizi, M., Ashrafi, M., Hajiaghaee, R., & Akhondzadeh, S. (2013). Memantine add-on in moderate to severe obsessive-compulsive disorder: Randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 47(2), 175–180.
Goddard, A. W., Brouette, T., Almai, A., et al. (2001). Early coadministration of clonazepam with sertraline for panic disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58(7), 681–686.
Goddard, A. W., Mahmud, W., Medlock, C., et al. (2015). A controlled trial of quetiapine XR coadministration treatment of SSRIresistant panic disorder. Annals of General Psychiatry, 14, 26.
Gommoll, C., Durgam, S., Mathews, M., Forero, G., Nunez, R., Tang, X., & Thase, M. E. (2015). A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, fixed-dose phase III study of vilazodone in patients with generalized anxiety disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 32(6), 451–459.
Goodman, W. K., Price, L. H., Rasmussen, S. A., et al. (1989). Efficacy of fluvoxamine in obsessive-compulsive disorder. A double-blind comparison with placebo. Archives of General Psychiatry, 46(1), 36–44.
Grant, P., Lougee, L., Hirschtritt, M., et al. (2007). An open-label trial of riluzole, a glutamate antagonist, in children with treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 17(6), 761–767.
Greenblatt, D. J., Shader, R. I., & Abernethy, D. R. (1983). Drug therapy. Current status of benzodiazepines. New England Journal of Medicine, 309(7), 410–416.
Greist, J. H. (1998). The comparative effectiveness of treatments for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 62(4, Suppl A), A65–A81.
Greist, J., Chouinard, G., DuBoff, E., et al. (1995a). Double-blind parallel comparison of three dosages of sertraline and placebo in outpatients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 289–295.
Greist, J. H., Jefferson, J. W., Kobak, K. A., et al. (1995b). A 1 year doubleblind placebo-controlled fixed dose study of sertraline in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 10(2), 57–65.
Greist, J. H., Jenike, M. A., & Robinson, D. (1995c). Efficacy of fluvoxam-ine in obsessive-compulsive disorder: Results of a multicentre, doubleblind, placebo-controlled trial. European Journal of Clinical Research, 7, 195–204.
Greist, J. H., & Jefferson, J. W. (1998). Pharmacotherapy for Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. The British Journal of Psychiatry. Supplement, no. 35, 64–70.
Greist, J. H., Lui-Dumaw, M., Schweizer, E., et al. (2011). Efficacy of pregabalin in preventing relapse in patients with generalized social anxiety disorder: Results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled 26-week study. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 26(5), 243–251.
Hadley, S. J., Mandel, F. S., & Schweizer, E. (2012). Switching from long-term benzodiazepine therapy to pregabalin in patients with generalized anxiety disorder: A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 26(4), 461–470.
Haghighi, M., Jahangard, L., Mohammad-Beigi, H., Bajoghli, H., Hafezian, H., Rahimi, A., Afshar, H., Holsboer-Trachsler, E., & Brand, S. (2013). In a double-blind, randomized and placebo-controlled trial, adjuvant memantine improved symptoms in inpatients suffering from refractory obsessive-compulsive disorders (OCD). Psychopharmacology, 228(4), 633–640.
Hamner, M., Faldowski, R., Ulmer, H., et al. (2003). Adjunctive risperidone treatment in posttraumatic stress disorder: A preliminary controlled trial of effects on comorbid psychotic symptoms. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 18(1), 1–18.
Hamner, M. B., Faldowski, R. A., Robert, S., et al. (2009). A preliminary controlled trial of divalproex in posttraumatic stress disorder. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, 21(2), 89–94.
Hartford, J., Kornstein, S., Liebowitz, M., et al. (2007). Duloxetine as an SNRI treatment for generalized anxiety disorder: Results from a placebo and active-controlled trial. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 22(3), 167–174.
Harvey, K. V., & Balon, R. (1995). Augmentation with buspirone: A review. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, 7, 143–147.
Haskins, J. T., Aguiar, L., & Pallay, A. (1999). Double-blind, placebo controlled study of once-daily venlafaxine XR (V-XR) in outpatients with generalized anxiety disorder. Presented at the annual meeting of the Anxiety Disorders Association of America, San Diego, CA.
Hedges, D. W., Reimherr, F. W., Strong, R. E., et al. (1996). An open trial of nefazodone in adult patients with generalized anxiety disorder. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 32(4), 671–676.
Hemmelgarn, B., Suissa, S., Huang, A., et al. (1997). Benzodiazepine use and the risk of motor vehicle crash in the elderly. JAMA, 278, 27–31.
Heresco-Levy, U., Kremer, I., Javitt, D. C., et al. (2002). Pilot-controlled trial of D-cycloserine for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 5, 301–307.
Heresco-Levy, U., Vass, A., Bloch, B., et al. (2009). Pilot controlled trial of D-serine for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 12, 1275–1282.
Hertzberg, M. A., Feldman, M. E., Beckham, J. C., et al. (1998). Open trial of nefazodone for combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 59(9), 460–464.
Hertzberg, M. A., Butterfeld, M. I., Feldman, M. E., et al. (1999). A preliminary study of lamotrigine for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 45(9), 1226–1229.
Hidalogo, R., Hertzberg, M. A., Mellman, T., et al. (1999). Nefazodone in posttraumatic stress disorder: Results from six open-label trials. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 14(2), 61–68.
Hoehn-Saric, R., McLeod, D. R., & Hipsley, P. A. (1993). Effect of fluvoxamine on panic disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 13(5), 321–326.
Hoge, E. A., Worthington, J. J., Nagurney, J. T., et al. (2012). Effect of acute posttrauma propranolol on PTSD outcome and physiological responses during script-driven imagery. CNS Neuroscience and Therapeutics, 18, 21–27.
Hollander, E., Friedberg, J., Wasserman, S., et al. (2003a). Venlafaxine in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 64, 546–550.
Hollander, E., Kaplan, A., & Stahl, S. M. (2003b). A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of clonazepam in obsessive-compulsive disorder. The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry, 4(1), 30–34.
International Multicenter Clinical Trial Group. (1997). Moclobemide in social phobia: A double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical study. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 247(2), 71–80.
Islam, M. M., Iqbal, U., Walther, B., Atique, S., Dubey, N. K., Nguyen, P. A., Poly, T. N., Masud, J. H., Li, Y. C., & Shabbir, S. A. (2016). Benzodiazepine use and risk of dementia in the elderly population: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuroepidemiology, 47(3–4), 181–191.
Isolan, L., Pheula, G., Salum, G. A., et al. (2007). An open-label trial of escitalopram in children and adolescents with social anxiety disorder. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 17(6), 751–759.
Jenike, M. A., Baer, L., & Greist, J. H. (1990). Clomipramine versus fluoxetine in obsessive-compulsive disorder: A retrospective comparison of side effects and efficacy. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 10(2), 122–124.
Kalus, O., Asnis, G. M., Rubinson, E., et al. (1991). Desipramine treatment in panic disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 21(4), 239–244.
Kasper, S., Stein, D., Loft, H., et al. (2005). Escitalopram in the treatment of social anxiety disorder: Randomized, placebo-controlled, flexible-dosage study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 186, 222–226.
Kasper, S., Herman, B., Nivoli, G., et al. (2009). Efficacy of pregabalin and venlafaxine-XR in generalized anxiety disorder: Results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled 8-week trial. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 24(2), 87–96.
Katzenick, D. J., Saidi, J., Vanelli, M. R., et al. (2006). Time to response in panic disorder in a naturalistic setting: Combination therapy with alprazolam orally disintegrating tablets and serotonin reuptake inhibitors compared to serotonin reuptake inhibitors alone. Psychiatry, 12(3), 39–49.
Katzman, M. A., Brawman-Mintzer, O., Reyes, E. B., et al. (2011). Extended release quetiapine fumarate (quetiapine XR) monotherapy as maintenance treatment for generalized anxiety disorder: A long-term, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 26(1), 11–24.
Keck, P. E., Jr., Taylor, V. E., Tugrul, K. C., et al. (1993). Valproate treatment of panic disorder and lactate-induced panic attacks. Biological Psychiatry, 33(7), 542–546.
Kelsey, J. E. (1995). Venlafaxine in social phobia. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 31(4), 767–771.
Khan, A., Joyce, M., Atkinson, S., et al. (2011). A randomized, double-blind study of once-daily extended release quetiapine fumarate (quetiapine XR) monotherapy in patients with generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 31(4), 418–428.
Kim, W., Pae, C. U., Chae, J. H., et al. (2005). The effectiveness of mirtazapine in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: A 24-week continuation therapy. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 59(6), 743–747.
Klein, D. (1964). Delineation of two-drug responsive anxiety syndromes. Psychopharmacologia, 5, 397–408.
Klein, D., & Fink, M. (1962). Psychiatric reaction patterns to imipramine. American Journal of Psychiatry, 119, 432–438.
Kobak, K. A., Greist, J. H., Jefferson, J. W., et al. (1998). Behavioral versus pharmacological treatments of obsessive-compulsive disorder: A meta-analysis. Psychopharmacology, 136(3), 205–216.
Koponen, H., Lepola, U., Leinonen, E., et al. (1997). Citalopram in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder: An open pilot study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 96(5), 343–346.
Koran, L. M., Faravelli, C., & Pallanti, S. (1994). Intravenous clomipramine for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 14(3), 216–218.
Koran, L. M., McElroy, S. L., Davidson, J. R., et al. (1996). Fluvoxamine versus clomipramine for obsessive-compulsive disorder: A double-blind comparison. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 16(2), 121–129.
Koran, L. M., Sallee, F. R., & Pallanti, S. (1997). Rapid benefit of intravenous pulse loading of clomipramine in obsessive-compulsive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154(3), 396–401.
Koran, L. M., Hackett, E., Rubin, A., et al. (2002). Efficacy of sertraline in the long-term treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159(1), 88–95.
Kordon, A., Wahl, K., Koch, N., et al. (2008). Quetiapine addition to serotonin reuptake inhibitors in patients with severe obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 28(5), 550–554.
Kosten, T. R., Frank, J. B., Dan, E., et al. (1991). Pharmacotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder using phenelzine or imipramine. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 179(6), 366–370.
Kronig, M. H., Apter, J., Asnis, G., et al. (1999). Placebo-controlled, multicenter study of sertraline treatment for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 19(2), 172–176.
Kruger, M. B., & Dahl, A. A. (1999). The efficacy and safety of moclobemide compared to clomipramine in the treatment of panic disorder. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 249(Suppl 1), S19–S24.
Krystal, J. H., Rosenheck, R. A., Cramer, J. A., et al. (2011). Adjunctive risperidone treatment for antidepressant-resistant symptoms of chronic military service-related PTSD. JAMA, 306(5), 493–502.
Kushner, M. G., Kim, S. W., Donahue, C., et al. (2007). D-Cycloserine augmented exposure therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 62, 835–838.
Laakmann, G., Schule, C., Lorkowski, G., et al. (1998). Buspirone and lorazepam in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder in outpatients. Psychopharmacology, 136(4), 357–366.
Lader, M., Stender, K., Burger, V., et al. (2004). Efficacy and tolerability of escitalopram in 12- and 24-week treatment of social anxiety disorder: Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, fixed-dose study. Depression and Anxiety, 19, 241–248.
Lecrubier, Y., & Judge, R. (1997). Long-term evaluation of paroxetine, clomipramine and placebo in panic disorder. Collaborative Paroxetine Panic Study Investigators. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 95(2), 153–160.
Lecrubier, Y., Bakker, A., Dunbar, G., et al. (1997). A comparison of paroxetine, clomipramine and placebo in the treatment of panic disorder. Collaborative Paroxetine Panic Study Investigators. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 95(2), 145–152.
Lee, D. J., Carla, W. S., Jonathan P. W., Meena, V., Ann, M. R., & Charles, W. H. (2016). Psychotherapy Versus Pharmacotherapy for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Systemic Review And Meta-analyses to Determine First-line Treatments. Depression and Anxiety, 33(9), 792–806.
Leinonen, E., Skarstein, J., Behnke, K., et al. (1999). Efficacy and tolerability of mirtazapine versus citalopram: A double-blind, randomized study in patients with major depressive disorder. Nordic Antidepressant Study Group. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 14(6), 329–337.
Lenze, E. J., Mulsant, B. H., Shear, M. K., et al. (2005). Efficacy and tolerability of citalopram in the treatment of late-life anxiety disorders: Results from an 8-week randomized, placebo-controlled trial. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(1), 146–150.
Lenze, E. J., Rollman, B. L., Shear, M. K., et al. (2009). Escitalopram for older adults with generalized anxiety disorder: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 301(3), 295–303.
Lerer, B., Bleich, A., Kotler, M., et al. (1987). Posttraumatic stress disorder in Israeli combat veterans. Effect of phenelzine treatment. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44(11), 976–981.
Li, X., May, R., Tolbert, L., et al. (2005). Risperidone and haloperidol augmentation of serotonin reuptake inhibitors in refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: A crossover study. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 66, 736–743.
Li, X., Zhu, L., Zhou, C., Liu, J., Du, H., Wang, C., & Fang, S. (2018). Efficacy and tolerability of short-term duloxetine treatment in adults with generalized anxiety disorder: A meta-analysis. PLoS One, 13(3), e0194501.
Liebowitz, M. R., Fyer, A. J., Gorman, J. M., et al. (1988). Tricyclic therapy of the DSM-III anxiety disorders: A review with implications for further research. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 22(Suppl 1), 7–31.
Liebowitz, M. R., DeMartinis, N. A., Weihs, K., et al. (2003). Efficacy of sertraline in severe generalized social anxiety disorder: Results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 64(4), 785–792.
Liebowitz, M. R., Gelenberg, A. J., & Munjack, D. (2005). Venlafaxine extended release vs. placebo and paroxetine in social anxiety disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 190–198.
Liebowitz, M. R., Asnis, G., Mangano, R., et al. (2009). A double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group, flexible-dose study of venlafaxine extended release capsules in adult outpatients with panic disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 70(40), 550–561.
Lindley, S. E., Carlson, E. B., & Hill, K. (2007). A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of augmentation topiramate for chronic combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 27(6), 677–681.
Litz, B. T., Salters-Pedneault, K., Steenkamp, M. M., et al. (2012). A randomized placebo-controlled trial of D-cycloserine and exposure therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 46, 1184–1190.
Liu, X., Li, X., Zhang, C., Sun, M., Sun, Z., Xu, Y., & Tian, X. (2018). Efficacy and tolerability of fluvoxamine in adults with social anxiety disorder: A meta-analysis. Medicine, 97(28), e11547.
Lohoff, F. M., Etemad, B., Mandos, L. A., et al. (2010). Ziprasidone treatment of refractory generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 30(2), 185–189.
Londborg, P. D., Wolkow, R., Smith, W. T., et al. (1998). Sertraline in the treatment of panic disorder. A multi-site, double-blind, placebo-controlled, fixed-dose investigation. British Journal of Psychiatry, 173, 54–60.
Londborg, P. D., Hegel, M. T., Goldstein, S., et al. (2001). Sertraline treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: Results of 24 weeks of open-label continuation treatment. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 65(5), 325–331.
Lopez-Ibor, J. J., Jr., Saiz, J., Cottraux, J., et al. (1996). Double-blind comparison of fluoxetine versus clomipramine in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 6(2), 111–118.
Lydiard, R. B., Morton, W. A., Emmanuel, N. P., et al. (1993). Preliminary report: Placebo-controlled, double-blind study of the clinical and metabolic effects of desipramine in panic disorder. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 29(2), 183–188.
Maina, G., Pessina, E., Albert, U., et al. (2008). 8-week, single-blind, randomized trial comparing risperidone versus olanzapine augmentation of serotonin reuptake inhibitors in treatment-resistant obsessive–compulsive disorder. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 18, 364–372.
Marazziti, D., Pfanner, C., Dell’Osso, B., et al. (2005). Augmentation strategy with olanzapine in resistant obsessive compulsive disorder: An Italian longterm open-label study. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 19, 392–394.
Marazziti, D., Golia, F., Consoli, G., et al. (2008). Effectiveness of long-term augmentation with citalopram to clomipramine in treatment-resistant OCD patients. CNS Spectrum, 13(11), 971–976.
March, J. S., Entusah, A. R., Rynn, M., et al. (2007). A randomized controlled trial of venlafaxine ER versus placebo in pediatric social anxiety disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 62, 1149–1154.
Marshall, R., Beebe, K., Oldham, M., et al. (2001). Efficacy and safety of paroxetine treatment for chronic PTSD: A fixed dose, placebo controlled study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158(12), 1982–1988.
Marshall, R. D., Lewis-Fernandez, R., Blanco, C., et al. (2007). A controlled trial of paroxetine for chronic PTSD, dissociation, and interpersonal problems in mostly minority adults. Depression and Anxiety, 24, 77–84.
Martenyi, F., Brown, E. B., Zhang, H., et al. (2002). Fluoxetine v. placebo in prevention of relapse in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Mental Science, 181(4), 315–320.
Masdrakis, V. G., Papadimitriou, G. N., & Oulis, P. (2010). Lamotrigine administration in panic disorder with agoraphobia. Clinical Neuropharmacology, 33(3), 126–128.
Masi, G., Pranner, C., Millepiedi, S., et al. (2010). Aripiprazole augmentation in 39 adolescents with medication-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 30(6), 688–693.
Mataix-Cols, D., Fernández de la Cruz, L., Monzani, B., Rosenfield, D., Andersson, E., Pérez-Vigil, A., Frumento, P., de Kleine, R. A., Difede, J., Dunlop, B. W., Farrell, L. J., Geller, D., Gerardi, M., Guastella, A. J., Hofmann, S. G., Hendriks, G. J., Kushner, M. G., Lee, F. S., Lenze, E. J., Levinson, C. A., McConnell, H., Otto, M. W., Plag, J., Pollack, M. H., Ressler, K. J., Rodebaugh, T. L., Rothbaum, B. O., Scheeringa, M. S., Siewert-Siegmund, A., Smits, J. A. J., Storch, E. A., Ströhle, A., Tart, C. D., Tolin, D. F., van Minnen, A., Waters, A. M., Weems, C. F., Wilhelm, S., Wyka, K., Davis, M., Rück, C., the DCS Anxiety Consortium, Altemus, M., Anderson, P., Cukor, J., Finck, C., Geffken, G. R., Golfels, F., Goodman, W. K., Gutner, C., Heyman, I., Jovanovic, T., Lewin, A. B., McNamara, J. P., Murphy, T. K., Norrholm, S., & Thuras, P. (2017). D-Cycloserine augmentation of exposure-based cognitive behavior therapy for anxiety, obsessive-compulsive, and posttraumatic stress disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis of individual participant data. JAMA Psychiatry, 74(5), 501–510.
Matsunaga, H., Nagata, T., Hayashida, K., et al. (2009). A long-term trial of the effectiveness and safety of atypical antipsychotic agents in augmenting SSRI-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 70(6), 863–868.
Mavissakalian, M., & Perel, J. M. (1992a). Clinical experiments in maintenance and discontinuation of imipramine therapy in panic disorder with agoraphobia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 49(4), 318–323.
Mavissakalian, M., & Perel, J. M. (1992b). Protective effects of imipramine maintenance treatment in panic disorder with agoraphobia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149(8), 1053–1057.
Mavissakalian, M. R., & Perel, J. M. (2001). 2nd year maintenance and discontinuation of imipramine in panic disorder with agoraphobia. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, 13(2), 63–67.
McDougle, C. J. (1997). Update on pharmacologic management of OCD: Agents and augmentation. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 58(Suppl 12), 11–17.
McRae, A., Brady, K., Mellman, T., et al. (2004). Comparison of nefazodone and sertraline for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 19, 190–196.
Menza, M., Dobkin, R. D., & Marin, H. (2007). An open-label trial of aripiprazole augmentation for treatment-resistant generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 22(2), 207–209.
Menzies, R. P. D. (2012). Propranolol, traumatic memories, and amnesia: A study of 36 cases. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 73(1), 129–130.
Merideth, C., Cutler, A. J., She, F., et al. (2012). Efficacy and tolerability of extended release quetiapine fumarate monotherapy in the acute treatment of generalized anxiety disorder: A randomized, placebo controlled and active-controlled study. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 27(1), 40–54.
Metin, O., Yazici, K., Tot, S., et al. (2003). Amisulpride augmentation in treatment resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: An open trial. Human Psychopharmacology, 18, 463–467.
Michelson, D., Lydiard, R. B., Pollack, M. H., et al. (1998). Outcome assessment and clinical improvement in panic disorder: Evidence from a randomized controlled trial of fluoxetine and placebo. The Fluoxetine Panic Disorder Study Group. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155(11), 1570–1577.
Michelson, D., Pollack, M., Lydiard, R. B., et al. (1999). Continuing treatment of panic disorder after acute response: Randomised, placebo-controlled trial with fluoxetine. The Fluoxetine Panic Disorder Study Group. British Journal of Psychiatry, 174, 213–218.
Michelson, D., Allgulander, C., Dantendorfer, K., et al. (2001). Efficacy of usual antidepressant dosing regimens of fluoxetine in panic disorder: Randomised, placebo-controlled trial. British Journal of Psychiatry, 179, 514–518.
Milanfranchi, A., Ravagli, S., Lensi, P., et al. (1997). A double-blind study of fluvoxamine and clomipramine in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 12(3), 131–136.
Modarresi, A., Sayyah, M., Razooghi, S., Eslami, K., Javadi, M., & Kouti, L. (2018). Memantine augmentation improves symptoms in serotonin reuptake inhibitor-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: A randomized controlled trial. Pharmacopsychiatry, 51(6), 263–269.
Modigh, K., Westberg, P., & Eriksson, E. (1992). Superiority of clomipramine over imipramine in the treatment of panic disorder: A placebo-controlled trial. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 12(4), 251–261.
Mokhber, N., Azarpazhooh, M. R., Khajehdaluee, M., Velayati, A., & Hopwood, M. (2010). Randomized, single-blind, trial of sertraline and buspirone for treatment of elderly patients with generalized anxiety disorder. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 64(2), 128–133.
Montgomery, S. A., McIntyre, A., Osterheider, M., et al. (1993). A doubleblind, placebo-controlled study of fluoxetine in patients with DSM-III-R obsessive-compulsive disorder. The Lilly European OCD Study Group. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 3(2), 143–152.
Montgomery, S., Kasper, S., Stein, D., et al. (2001). Citalopram 20 mg, 40 mg, and 60 mg are all effective and well tolerated compared with placebo in obsessive-compulsive disorder. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 16(2), 75–86.
Montgomery, S. A., Nil, R., Durr-Pal, N., et al. (2005). A 24-week randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of escitalopram for the prevention of generalized social anxiety disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 66(10), 1270–1278.
Montgomery, S. A., Tobias, K., Zornberg, G. L., et al. (2006). Efficacy and safety of pregabalin in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder: A 6-week, multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled comparison of pregabalin and venlafaxine. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 67(5), 771–782.
Moroz, G., & Rosenbaum, J. F. (1999). Efficacy, safety, and gradual discontinuation of clonazepam in panic disorder: A placebo-controlled, multicenter study using optimized dosages. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 60(9), 604–612.
Mowla, A., & Ghaedsharaf, M. (2020). Pregabalin augmentation for resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: A double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial. CNS Spectrums, 25(4), 552–556.
Mowla, A., Boostani, S., & Dastgheib, S. A. (2016). Duloxetine augmentation in resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: A double-blind controlled clinical trial. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 36(6), 720–723.
Muehlbacher, M., Nickel, M., Nickel, C., et al. (2005). Mirtazapine treatment of social phobia in women: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 25, 580–583.
Mundo, E., Bianchi, L., & Bellodi, L. (1997). Efficacy of fluvoxamine, paroxetine, and citalopram in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder: A single-blind study. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 17(4), 267–271.
Munjack, D. J., Usigli, R., Zulueta, A., et al. (1988). Nortriptyline in the treatment of panic disorder and agoraphobia with panic attacks. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 8(3), 204–207.
Muscatello, M. R., Bruno, A., Pandolfo, G., et al. (2011). Effect of aripiprazole augmentation of serotonin reuptake inhibitors or clomipramine in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 31(2), 174–179.
Nardi, A., & Perna, G. (2006). Clonazepam in the treatment of psychiatric disorders: An update. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 21(3), 131–142.
Nardi, A. E., Freire, R. C., Valenca, A. M., et al. (2010a). Tapering clonazepam in patients with panic disorder after at least 3 years of treatment. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 30(3), 290–293.
Nardi, A. E., Lopes, F. L., Valenca, A. M., et al. (2010b). Double-blind comparison of 30 and 60 mg tranylcypromine daily in patients with panic disorder comorbid with social anxiety disorder. Psychiatry Research, 175, 260–265.
Nardi, A. E., Valenca, A. M., Freire, R. C., et al. (2011). Psychopharmacotherapy of panic disorder: 8-week randomized trial with clonazepam and paroxetine. Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, 44(4), 366–373.
Nardi, A. E., Freire, R. C., Mochcovitch, M. D., et al. (2012). A randomized, naturalistic, parallel-group study for the long-term treatment of panic disorder with clonazepam or paroxetine. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 32(1), 120–126.
Nicola, M. D., Tedeschi, D., Martinotti, G., et al. (2011). Pregabalin augmentation in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 31(5), 675–677.
Noyes, R., Jr., Garvey, M. J., Cook, B. L., et al. (1989). Problems with tricyclic antidepressant use in patients with panic disorder or agoraphobia: Results of a naturalistic follow-up study. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 50, 163–169.
Noyes, R., Jr., Burrows, G. D., Reich, J. H., et al. (1996). Diazepam versus alprazolam for the treatment of panic disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 57(8), 349–355.
Noyes, R., Jr., Moroz, G., Davidson, J. R., et al. (1997). Moclobemide in social phobia: A controlled dose-response trial. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 17(4), 247–254.
Offidani, E., Guidi, J., Tomba, E., et al. (2013). Efficacy and tolerability of benzodiazepines versus antidepressants in anxiety disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 82, 355–362.
Oulis, P., Mourikis, I., & Konstantakopoulos, G. (2011). Pregabalin augmentation in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 26(4), 221–224.
Pae, C. U., Wang, S. M., Han, C., Lee, S. J., Patkar, A. A., Masand, P. S., & Serretti, A. (2015). Vortioxetine, a multimodal antidepressant for generalized anxiety disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 64, 88–98.
Pallanti, S., Quercioli, L., & Koran, L. M. (2002). Citalopram intravenous infusion in resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: An open trial. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 63(9), 796–801.
Pallanti, S., Bernardi, S., Antonini, S., et al. (2009). Ondansetron augmentation in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: A preliminary, singleblind, prospective study. CNS Drugs, 23(12), 1047–1055.
Pande, A. C., Greiner, M., Adams, J. B., et al. (1999). Placebo-controlled trial of the CCK-B antagonist, CI-988, in panic disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 46(6), 860–862.
Pande, A. C., Crockatt, J. G., Feltner, D. E., et al. (2003). Pregabalin in generalized anxiety disorder: A placebo-controlled trial. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(3), 533–540.
Pande, A. C., Feltner, D., Jefferson, J., et al. (2004). Efficacy of the novel anxiolytic pregabalin in social anxiety disorder: A placebo-controlled, multicenter study. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 24(2), 141–149.
Papp, L. C. (2006). Safety and efficacy of levetiracetam for patients with panic disorder: Results of an open-label, fixed-flexible dose study. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 67(10), 1573–1576.
Papp, L. A., Coplan, J. D., Martinez, J. M., et al. (2000). Efficacy of open-label nefazodone treatment in patients with panic disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 20(5), 544–546.
Perez, V., Gilaberte, I., Faries, D., et al. (1997). Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of pindolol in combination with fluoxetine antidepressant treatment. The Lancet, 349(9065), 1594–1597.
Perna, G., Bertani, A., Caldirola, D., et al. (2001). A comparison of citalopram and paroxetine in the treatment of panic disorder: A randomized, singleblind study. Pharmacopsychiatry, 34(3), 85–90.
Perse, T. L., Greist, J. H., Jefferson, J. W., et al. (1987). Fluvoxamine treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144(12), 1543–1548.
Pessina, E., Albert, U., Bogetto, F., et al. (2009). Aripiprazole augmentation of serotonin reuptake inhibitors in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: A 12-week open-label preliminary study. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 24(5), 265–269.
Petty, F., Brannan, S., Casada, J., et al. (2001). Olanzapine treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder: An open-label study. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 16(6), 331–337.
Pfanner, C., Marazziti, D., Dell’Osso, L., et al. (2000). Risperidone augmentation in refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: An open-label study. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 15(5), 297–301.
Piccinelli, M., Pini, S., Bellantuono, C., et al. (1995). Efficacy of drug treatment in obsessive-compulsive disorder. A meta-analytic review. British Journal of Psychiatry, 166(4), 424–443.
Piero, A., & Locati, E. (2011). An open, non-randomized comparison of escitalopram and duloxetine for the treatment of subjects with generalized anxiety disorder. Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental, 26, 63–71.
Pigott, T. A., L’Heureux, F., & Rubenstein, C. S. (1992a). A controlled trial of clonazepam augmentation in OCD patients treated with clomipramine or fluoxetine. New Research Program and Abstracts of the 145th Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association, Abstract 144.
Pigott, T. A., L’Heureux, F., Rubenstein, C. S., Bernstein, S. E., Hill, J. L., & Murphy, D. L. (1992b). A double-blind, placebo controlled study of trazodone in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 12(3), 156–162.
Pilkinton, P., Berry, C., Norrholm, S., et al. (2016). An open label pilot study of adjunctive asenapine for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 46(2), 8–17.
Pittman, R. K., Sanders, K. M., Zusman, R. M., et al. (2002). Pilot study of secondary prevention of posttraumatic disorders with propranolol. Biological Psychiatry, 51, 189–192.
Pivac, N., Kovacic-Kozaric, D., & Muck-Seler, D. (2004). Olanzapine versus fluphenazine in an open trial in patients with psychotic combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychopharmacology, 175, 451–456.
Pollack, M. H., Worthington, J. J., III, Otto, M. W., et al. (1996). Venlafaxine for panic disorder: Results from a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 32(4), 667–670.
Pollack, M. H., Otto, M. W., Worthington, J. J., et al. (1998). Sertraline in the treatment of panic disorder: A flexible-dose multicenter trial. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55(11), 1010–1016.
Pollack, M. H., Zaninelli, R., Goddard, A., et al. (2001). Paroxetine in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder: Results of a placebo-controlled, flexible-dosage trial. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 62(5), 350–357.
Pollack, M. H., Simon, N. M., Worthington, J. J., et al. (2003). Combined paroxetine and clonazepam treatment strategies compared to paroxetine monotherapy for panic disorder. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 17(3), 276–282.
Pollack, M. H., Roy-Byrne, P. P., Van Ameringen, M., et al. (2005). The selective GABA reuptake inhibitor tiagabine for the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder: Results of a placebo-controlled study. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 66(11), 1401–1408.
Pollack, M. H., Simon, N. M., Zalta, A. K., et al. (2006). Olanzapine augmentation of fluoxetine for refractory generalized anxiety disorder: A placebo controlled study. Biological Psychiatry, 59, 211–215.
Pollack, M. H., Lepola, U., Koponen, H., et al. (2007). A double-blind study of the efficacy of venlafaxine extended-release, paroxetine, and placebo in the treatment of panic disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 24(1), 1–14.
Pollack, M. H., Hoge, E. A., Worthington, J. J., et al. (2011). Eszopiclone for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder and associated insomnia: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 72(7), 892–897.
Pollack, M. H., Van Ameringen, M., Simon, N. M., Worthington, J. W., Hoge, E. A., Keshaviah, A., & Stein, M. B. (2014). A double-blind randomized controlled trial of augmentation and switch strategies for refractory social anxiety disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 171(1), 44–53.
Prosser, J. M., Yard, S., Steele, A., et al. (2009). A comparison of low-dose risperidone to paroxetine in the treatment of panic attacks: A randomized, single-blind study. BMC Psychiatry, 9, 25.
Qi, W., Martin, G., & Arieh, S. (2017). Efficacy and Tolerability of High-Dose Escitalopram in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 37(1), 89–93.
Qin, B., Huang, G., Yang, Q., Zhao, M., Chen, H., Gao, W., & Yang, M. (2019). Vortioxetine treatment for generalised anxiety disorder: A meta-analysis of anxiety, quality of life and safety outcomes. BMJ Open, 9(11), e033161.
Rabinowitz, I., Baruch, Y., & Barak, Y. (2008). High-dose escitalopram for the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 23(1), 49–53.
Rapaport, M. H., Wolkow, R. M., & Clary, C. M. (1998). Methodologies and outcomes from the sertraline multicenter flexible-dose trials. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 34(2), 183–189.
Rapaport, M. H., Wolkow, R., Rubin, A., et al. (2001). Sertraline treatment of panic disorder: Results of a long-term study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 4(104), 289–298.
Rapaport, M. H., Endicott, J., & Clary, C. M. (2002). Posttraumatic stress disorder and quality of life: Results across 64 weeks of sertraline treatment. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 63, 59–65.
Rapaport, M. H., Skarky, S. B., Katzelnick, D. J., et al. (2006). Time to response in generalized anxiety disorder in a naturalistic setting: Combination therapy with alprazolam orally disintegrating tablets and serotonin reuptake inhibitors compared to serotonin reuptake inhibitors alone. Psychiatry, 3(12), 50–59.
Raskind, M. A., Peskind, E. R., Kanter, E. D., et al. (2003). Reduction of nightmares and other PTSD symptoms in combat veterans by prazosin: A placebo-controlled study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(2), 371–373.
Raskind, M. A., Peskind, E. R., Joff, D. J., et al. (2007). A parallel group placebo controlled study of prazosin for trauma nightmares and sleep disturbance in combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 61, 928–934.
Reich, D., Winternitz, S., Hennen, J., et al. (2004). A preliminary study of risperidone in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder related to childhood abuse in women. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 65, 1601–1606.
Reist, C., Streja, E., Tang, C. C., et al. (2020). Prazosin for treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. CNS Spectrums, 26, 338–344.
Ribeiro, L., Busnello, J. V., Kauer-Sant’Anna, M., et al. (2001). Mirtazapine versus fluoxetine in the treatment of panic disorder. Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, 34(10), 1303–1307.
Riblet, L. A., Taylor, D. P., Eison, M. S., et al. (1982). Pharmacology and neurochemistry of buspirone. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 43(12, Pt 2), 11–18.
Rickels, K., & Schweizer, E. (1998). Panic disorder: Long-term pharmacotherapy and discontinuation. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 18(6, Suppl 2), 12S–18S.
Rickels, K., Weisman, K., Norstad, N., et al. (1982). Buspirone and diazepam in anxiety: A controlled study. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 43(12, Pt 2), 81–86.
Rickels, K., Case, W. G., Downing, R. W., et al. (1983). Long-term diazepam therapy and clinical outcome. JAMA, 250(6), 767–771.
Rickels, K., Schweizer, E., Csanalosi, I., et al. (1988). Long-term treatment of anxiety and risk of withdrawal. Prospective comparison of clorazepate and buspirone. Archives of General Psychiatry, 45(5), 444–450.
Rickels, K., Downing, R., Schweizer, E., et al. (1993). Antidepressants for the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder. A placebo-controlled comparison of imipramine, trazodone, and diazepam. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50(11), 884–895.
Rickels, K., Pollack, M. H., Sheehan, D. V., et al. (2000). Efficacy of extended-release venlafaxine in nondepressed outpatients with generalized anxiety disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157(6), 968–974.
Rickels, K., Zaninelli, R., McCafferty, J., et al. (2003). Paroxetine treatment of generalized anxiety disorder: A double-blind, placebo-controlled study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(4), 749–756.
Rickels, K., Mangano, R., & Khan, A. (2004). A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of a flexible dose of venlafaxine ER in adult outpatients with generalized social anxiety. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 24(5), 488–496.
Rickels, K., Pollack, M. H., Feltner, D. E., et al. (2005). Pregabalin for treatment of generalized anxiety disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 1022–1030.
Rickels, K., Shiovitz, T. M., Ramey, T. S., et al. (2012). Adjunctive therapy with pregabalin in generalized anxiety disorder patients with partial response to SSRI or SNRI treatment. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 27(3), 142–150.
Riddle, M., Reeve, E., Yaryura-Tobias, J., et al. (2001). Fluvoxamine for children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder: A randomized, controlled, multicenter trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 222–229.
Robb, A. D., Cueva, J. E., Sporn, J., et al. (2010). Sertaline treatment of children and adolescents with posttraumatic stress disorder: A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 20(6), 463–471.
Robert, S., Hamner, M. B., Durkalski, V. L., et al. (2009). An open-label assessment of aripiprazole in the treatment of PTSD. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 42(1), 69–80.
Rodrigues, H., Figueira, I., Lopes, A., Gonçalves, R., Mendlowicz, M. V., Coutinho, E. S., & Ventura, P. (2014). Does D-cycloserine enhance exposure therapy for anxiety disorders in humans? A meta-analysis. PLoS One, 9(7), e93519.
Rosenbaum, J. F., Moroz, G., & Bowden, C. L. (1997). Clonazepam in the treatment of panic disorder with or without agoraphobia: A dose-response study of efficacy, safety, and discontinuance. Clonazepam Panic Disorder Dose-Response Study Group. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 17(5), 390–400.
Rothbaum, B. O., Killeen, T. K., Davidson, J. R. T., et al. (2008). Placebo-controlled trial of risperidone augmentation for selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor-resistant civilian posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 69(4), 520–525.
Rubio, G., Jimenez-Arriero, M., Martinez-Gras, I., et al. (2006). The effects of topiramate adjunctive treatment added to antidepressants in patients with resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 26, 341–344.
Rynn, M. A., Siqueland, L., & Rickels, K. (2001). Placebo-controlled trial of sertraline in the treatment of children with generalized anxiety disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158(12), 2008–2014.
Rynn, M. A., Riddle, M. A., Yeung, P. P., et al. (2007). Efficacy and safety of extended-release venlafaxine in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder in children and adolescents: Two placebo-controlled trials. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164(2), 290–300.
Rynn, M., Russell, J., Erickson, J., et al. (2008). Efficacy and safety of du-loxetine in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder: A flexible-dose, progressive-titration, placebo-controlled trial. Depression and Anxiety, 25, 182–189.
Sandford, J. J., Forshall, S., Bell, C., et al. (2001). Crossover trial of pagoclone and placebo in patients with DSM-IV panic disorder. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 15(3), 205–208.
Sartori, S. B., & Singewald, N. (2019). Novel pharmacological targets in drug development for the treatment of anxiety and anxiety-related disorders. Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 204, 107402.
Sasson, Y., Iancu, I., Fux, M., et al. (1999). A double-blind crossover comparison of clomipramine and desipramine in the treatment of panic disorder. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 9(3), 191–196.
Saygin, M., Sungur, M., Sabol, E., et al. (2002). Nefazodone versus sertraline in treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 12(1), 1–5.
Sayyah, M., Sayyah, M., Boostani, H., et al. (2012). Effects of aripiprazole augmentation in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder (a double-blind clinical trial). Depression and Anxiety, 29, 850–854.
Schmitt, R., Gazalle, F. K., Lima, M. S., Cunha, A., Souza, J., & Kapczinski, F. (2005). The efficacy of antidepressants for generalized anxiety disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry, 27(1), 18–24.
Schneier, F. R., Goetz, D., Campeas, R., et al. (1998). Placebo-controlled trial of moclobemide in social phobia. Journal of Mental Science, 172, 70–77.
Schneier, F. R., Campeas, R., Carcamo, J., et al. (2015). Combined mirtazapine and SSRI treatment of PTSD: A placebo-controlled trial. Depression and Anxiety, 32(8), 570–579.
Schutters, S. I. J., van Megen, H. J., Van Veen, J. F., et al. (2010). Mirtazapine in generalized social anxiety disorder: A randomized, doubleblind, placebo-controlled study. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 25(5), 302–304.
Schutters, S. I. J., van Megen, H. J., Van Veen, J. F., et al. (2011). Paroxetine augmentation in patients with generalised social anxiety disorder, non-responsive to mirtazapine or placebo. Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental, 26, 72–76.
Schweizer, E., Fox, I., Case, G., et al. (1988). Lorazepam vs. alprazolam in the treatment of panic disorder. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 24(2), 224–227.
Selvi, Y., Atli, A., Aydin, A., et al. (2011). The comparison of aripiprazole and risperidone augmentation in selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: A single-blind, randomized study. Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental, 26, 51–57.
Sepede, G., Berardis, D. D., Gambi, F., et al. (2006). Olanzapine augmentation in treatment-resistant panic disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 26(1), 45–49.
Shah, A., & Northcutt, J. (2018). An openlabel, flexible dose adaptive study evaluating the efficacy of vortioxetine in subjects with panic disorder. Annals of General Psychiatry, 17, 19.
Sheehan, D. V., Ballenger, J., & Jacobsen, G. (1980). Treatment of endogenous anxiety with phobic, hysterical, and hypochondriacal symptoms. Archives of General Psychiatry, 37(1), 51–59.
Sheehan, D. V., Davidson, J., Manschreck, T., et al. (1983). Lack of efficacy of a new antidepressant (bupropion) in the treatment of panic disorder with phobias. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 3(1), 28–31.
Sheehan, D. V., Burnham, D. B., Iyengar, M. K., et al. (2005). Efficacy and tolerability of controlled-release paroxetine in the treatment of panic disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 66, 34–40.
Sheehan, D. V., Sheehan, K. H., Raj, B. A., et al. (2007). An open-label study of tiagabine in panic disorder. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 40(3), 32–40.
Simeon, J. G., Ferguson, H. B., Knott, V., Roberts, N., Gauthier, B., Dubois, C., & Wiggins, D. (1992). Clinical, cognitive, and neurophysiological effects of alprazolam in children and adolescents with overanxious and avoidant disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31(1), 29–33.
Simon, N. M., Kaufman, R. E., Hoge, E. A., et al. (2009). Open-label support for duloxetine for the treatment of panic disorder. CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics, 15(1), 19–23.
Simon, N. M., Worthington, J. J., Moshier, S. J., Marks, E. H., Hoge, E. A., Brandes, M., Delong, H., & Pollack, M. H. (2010). Duloxetine for the treatment of generalized social anxiety disorder: A preliminary randomized trial of increased dose to optimize response. CNS Spectrums, 15(7), 367–373.
Simpson, H. B., Foa, E. B., Liebowitz, M. R., Huppert, J. D., Cahill, S., Maher, M. J., McLean, C. P., Bender, J., Marcus, S. M., Williams, M. T., Weaver, J., Vermes, D., Van Meter, P. E., Rodriguez, C. I., Powers, M., Pinto, A., Imms, P., Hahn, C.-G., & Campeas, R. (2013). Cognitive-behavioral therapy vs risperidone for augmenting serotonin reuptake inhibitors in obsessive-compulsive disorder: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry, 70(11), 1190–1199.
Skapinakis, P., Caldwell, D. M., Hollingworth, W., Bryden, P., Fineberg, N. A., Salkovskis, P., Welton, N. J., Baxter, H., Kessler, D., Churchill, R., & Lewis, G. (2016). Pharmacological and psychotherapeutic interventions for management of obsessive-compulsive disorder in adults: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. The Lancet. Psychiatry, 3(8), 730–739.
Slee, A., Nazareth, I., Bondaronek, P., Liu, Y., Cheng, Z., & Freemantle, N. (2019). Pharmacological treatments for generalised anxiety disorder: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. Lancet (London, England), 393(10173), 768–777.
Soltani, F., Sayyah, M., Feizy, F., et al. (2010). A double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study of ondansetron for patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental, 25, 509–513.
Sramek, J. J., Hong, W. W., Hamid, S., et al. (1999). Meta-analysis of the safety and tolerability of two dose regimens of buspirone in patients with persistent anxiety. Depression and Anxiety, 9(3), 131–134.
Stahl, S. M., Gergel, I., Li, D., et al. (2003). Escitalopram in the treatment of panic disorder: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 64(11), 1322–1327.
Stahl, S. M., Ahmed, S., & Haudiquet, V. (2007). Analysis of the rate of improvement of specific psychic and somatic symptoms of general anxiety disorder during long-term treatment with venlafaxine ER. CNS Spectrum, 12(9), 703–711.
Steenen, S. A., Wijk, A. J., Heijden, G. J. M. G., et al. (2016). Propranolol for the treatment of anxiety disorders: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 30(2), 128–139.
Stein, D. J., Spadaccini, E., & Hollander, E. (1995). Meta-analysis of pharmacotherapy trials for obsessive-compulsive disorder. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 10(1), 11–18.
Stein, M. B., Liebowitz, M. R., Lydiard, R. B., et al. (1998). Paroxetine treatment of generalized social phobia (social anxiety disorder): A randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 280(8), 708–713.
Stein, M. B., Fyer, A. J., Davidson, J. R., et al. (1999). Fluvoxamine treatment of social phobia (social anxiety disorder): A double-blind, placebo-controlled study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156(5), 756–760.
Stein, D. J., Seedat, S., van der Linden, G. J., et al. (2000). Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 15(Suppl 2), S31–S39.
Stein, M. B., Sareen, J., Hami, S., et al. (2001). Pindolol potentiation of paroxetine for generalized social phobia: A double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158(10), 1725–1727.
Stein, M., Kline, N., & Matloff, J. (2002a). Adjunctive olanzapine for SSRI-resistant combat-related PTSD: A double-blind, placebo-controlled study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159(10), 1777–1779.
Stein, D., Cameron, A., Amrein, R., et al. (2002b). Moclobemide is effective and well tolerated in the long-term pharmacotherapy of social anxiety disorder with or without comorbid anxiety disorder. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 17(4), 161–170.
Stein, D. J., Andersen, E. W., Tonnoir, B., et al. (2007). Escitalopram in obsessive-compulsive disorder: A randomized, placebo-controlled, paroxetine-referenced, fixed-dose, 24-week study. Current Medical Research and Opinion, 23(4), 701–711.
Stein, M. B., Ravindran, L. N., Simon, N. M., Liebowitz, M. R., Khan, A., Brawman-Mintzer, O., Lydiard, R. B., & Pollack, M. H. (2010). Levetiracetam in generalized social anxiety disorder: A double-blind, randomized controlled trial. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 71(5), 627–631.
Steiner, H., Saxena, K. S., Carrion, V., et al. (2007). Divalproex sodium for the treatment of PTSD and conduct disordered youth: A pilot randomized controlled clinical trial. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 38, 183–193.
Stocchi, F., Nordera, G., Jokinen, R. H., et al. (2003). Efficacy and tolerability of paroxetine for the long-term treatment of generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 64(3), 250–258.
Storch, E. A., Merlo, L. J., Begtson, M., et al. (2007). D-Cycloserine does not enhance exposure-response prevention therapy in obsessive-compulsive disorder. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 22(4), 230–237.
Strawn, J. R., Welge, J. A., Wehry, A. M., Keeshin, B., & Rynn, M. A. (2015). Efficacy and tolerability of antidepressants in pediatric anxiety disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Depression and Anxiety, 32(3), 149–157.
Strawn, J. R., Geracioti, L., Rajdev, N., Clemenza, K., & Levine, A. (2018a). Pharmacotherapy for generalized anxiety disorder in adult and pediatric patients: An evidence-based treatment review. Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy, 19(10), 1057–1070.
Strawn, J. R., Mills, J. A., Cornwall, G. J., Mossman, S. A., Varney, S. T., Keeshin, B. R., & Croarkin, P. E. (2018b). Buspirone in children and adolescents with anxiety: A review and Bayesian analysis of abandoned randomized controlled trials. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 28(1), 2–9.
Strawn, J. R., Mills, J. A., Schroeder, H., Mossman, S. A., Varney, S. T., Ramsey, L. B., Poweleit, E. A., Desta, Z., Cecil, K., & DelBello, M. P. (2020). Escitalopram in adolescents with generalized anxiety disorder: A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 81(5), 20m13396.
Taylor, F. (2003). Tiagabaine for posttraumatic stress disorder: A case series of 7 women. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 64, 1421–1425.
Taylor, F. B., Martin, P., Thompson, C., et al. (2008). Prazosin effects on objective sleep measures and clinical symptoms in civilian trauma posttraumatic stress disorder: A placebo-controlled study. Biological Psychiatry, 63(6), 629–632.
Thomsen, P. H. (1997). Child and adolescent obsessive-compulsive disorder treated with citalopram: Findings from an open trial of 23 cases. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 7(3), 157–166.
Tiller, J. W., Bouwer, C., & Behnke, K. (1999). Moclobemide and fluoxetine for panic disorder. International Panic Disorder Study Group. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 249(Suppl 1), S7–S10.
Todorov, C., Freeston, M. H., & Borgeat, F. (2000). On the pharmacotherapy of obsessive-compulsive disorder: Is a consensus possible? Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Revue Canadienne de Psychiatrie, 45(3), 257–262.
Tollefson, G., Birkett, M., & Koran, L. (1994a). Continuation treatment of OCD: Double blind and open label experience with fluoxetine. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 55(Suppl 10), 69–76.
Tollefson, G. D., Rampey, A. H., Jr., Potvin, J. H., et al. (1994b). A multicenter investigation of fixed-dose fluoxetine in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51(7), 559–567. (Erratum published in Archives of General Psychiatry, 1994, 51(11), 864).
Tucker, P., Zaninelli, R., Yehuda, R., et al. (2001). Paroxetine in the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder: Results of a placebo-controlled, flexible-dosage trial. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 62(11), 860–868.
Tucker, P., Trautman, R. P., Wyatt, D. B., et al. (2007). Efficacy and safety of topiramate monotherapy in civilian posttraumatic stress disorder: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 68(2), 201–206.
Tzavellas, E., Karaiskos, D., Ilias, I., Liappas, I., & Paparrigopoulos, T. (2014). Agomelatine augmentation in obsessive compulsive disorder: A preliminary report. Psychiatriki, 25(3), 179–184.
Uhlenhuth, E. H., Alexander, P. E., Dempsey, G. M., et al. (1998). Medication side effects in anxious patients: Negative placebo responses? Journal of Affective Disorders, 47(1–3), 183–190.
Vaishnavi, S., Alamy, S., Zhang, W., Connor, K. M., & Davidson, J. R. (2007). Quetiapine as monotherapy for social anxiety disorder: A placebo-controlled study. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 31(7), 1464–1469.
Vaiva, G., Ducrocq, F., Jezequel, K., et al. (2003). Immediate treatment with propranolol decreases posttraumatic stress disorder two months after trauma. Biological Psychiatry, 54, 947–949.
Vallejo, J., Olivares, J., Marcos, T., et al. (1992). Clomipramine versus phenelzine in obsessive-compulsive disorder. A controlled clinical trial. British Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 665–670.
Van Ameringen, M., Mancini, C., & Wilson, C. (1996). Buspirone augmentation of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) in social phobia. Journal of Affective Disorders, 39(2), 115–121.
Van Ameringen, M. A., Lane, R. M., Walker, J. R., et al. (2001). Sertraline treatment of generalized social phobia: A 20-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158(2), 275–281.
Van Ameringen, M., Mancini, C., Oakman, J., Walker, J., Kjernisted, K., Chokka, P., Johnston, D., Bennett, M., & Patterson, B. (2007). Nefazodone in the treatment of generalized social phobia: A randomized, placebo-controlled trial. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 68(2), 288–295.
van der Kolk, B. A., Dreyfuss, D., Michaels, M., et al. (1994). Fluoxetine in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 55(12), 517–522.
van Vliet, I. M., Westenberg, H. G., & den Boer, J. A. (1993). MAO inhibitors in panic disorder: Clinical effects of treatment with brofaromine. A double blind placebo controlled study. Psychopharmacology, 112(4), 483–489.
van Vliet, I. M., den Boer, J. A., Westenberg, H. G., et al. (1997). Clinical effects of buspirone in social phobia: A double-blind placebo-controlled study. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 58(4), 164–168.
Versiani, M., Nardi, A. E., Mundim, F. D., et al. (1992). Pharmacotherapy of social phobia. A controlled study with moclobemide and phenelzine. British Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 353–360.
Versiani, M., Cassano, G., Perugi, G., et al. (2002). Reboxetine, a selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor, is an effective and well-tolerated treatment for panic disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 63(1), 31–37.
Villarreal, G., Calais, L. A., Canive, J. M., et al. (2007). Prospective study to evaluate the efficacy of aripiprazole as a monotherapy in patients with severe chronic posttraumatic stress disorder: An open trial. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 40(2), 6–18.
Villarreal, G., Canive, J. M., Calais, L. A., et al. (2010). Duloxetine in military posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 43(3), 26–34.
Vulink, N. C., Denys, D., & Westenberg, H. G. (2005). Bupropion for patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder: An open-label, fixed-dose study. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 66, 228–230.
Vulink, N. C., Denys, D., Fluitman, S. B., et al. (2009). Quetiapine augments the effect of citalopram in non-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of 76 patients. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 70(7), 1001–1008.
Wade, A. G., Lepola, U., Koponen, H. J., et al. (1997). The effect of citalopram in panic disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 170, 549–553.
Walderhaug, E., Kasserman, S., Aikins, D., et al. (2010). Effects of duloxetine in treatment-refractory men with posttraumatic stress disorder. Pharmacopsychiatry, 43(2), 45–49.
Warneke, L. B. (1984). The use of intravenous chlorimipramine in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Canadian Journal of Psychiatric Nursing, 29(2), 135–141.
Warneke, L. B. (1985). Intravenous chlorimipramine in the treatment of obsessional disorder in adolescence: Case report. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 46(3), 100–103.
Warneke, L. (1989). Intravenous chlorimipramine therapy in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Canadian Journal of Psychiatric Nursing, 34(9), 853–859.
Watson, P. (2019). PTSD as a public mental health priority. Current Psychiatry Reports, 21(7), 61.
Weiss, E. L., Potenza, M. N., McDougle, C. J., et al. (1999). Olanzapine addition in obsessive-compulsive disorder refractory to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors: An open-label case series. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 60(8), 524–527.
Westenberg, H., Stein, D., Yang, H., et al. (2004). A double-blind placebo-controlled study of controlled release fluvoxamine for the treatment of generalized social anxiety disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 24(1), 49–55.
Williams, T., Hattingh, C. J., Kariuki, C. M., Tromp, S. A., van Balkom, A. J., Ipser, J. C., & Stein, D. J. (2017). Pharmacotherapy for social anxiety disorder (SAnD). The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 10(10), CD001206. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD001206.pub3
Wingerson, D., Nguyen, C., & Roy-Byrne, P. P. (1992). Clomipramine treatment for generalized anxiety disorder (letter). Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 12, 214–215.
Woodman, C. L., & Noyes, R., Jr. (1994). Panic disorder: Treatment with valproate. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 55(4), 134–136.
Woolcott, J. C., Richardson, K. J., Wiens, M. O., et al. (2009). Meta-analysis of the impact of 9 medication classes on falls in elderly persons. Archives of Internal Medicine, 169, 1952–1960.
Wu, W., Wang, G., Ball, S. G., et al. (2011). Duloxetine versus placebo in the treatment of patients with generalized anxiety disorder in China. Chinese Medical Journal, 124(20), 3260–3268.
Yeh, M. S., Mari, J. J., Costa, M. C. P., et al. (2010). A double-blind randomized controlled trial to study the efficacy of topiramate in a civilian sample of PTSD. CNSN Euroscience and Therapeutics, 17, 305–310.
Youssef, N. A., Marx, C. E., Bradford, D. W., et al. (2012). An open-label pilot study of aripiprazole for male and female veterans with chronic posttraumatic stress disorder who respond suboptimally to antidepressants. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 27(4), 191–196.
Zanardi, R., Artigas, F., Franchini, L., et al. (1997). How long should pindolol be associated with paroxetine to improve the antidepressant response? Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 17(6), 446–450.
Zhou, D.-D., Zhou, X.-X., Li, Y., Zhang, K.-F., Lv, Z., Chen, X.-R., Wan, L.-Y., Wang, W., Wang, G.-M., Li, D.-Q., Ai, M., & Kuang, L. (2019). Augmentation agents to serotonin reuptake inhibitors for treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: A network meta-analysis. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 90, 277–287.
Zisook, S., Chentsova-Dutton, Y. E., Smith-Vaniz, A., et al. (2000). Nefazodone in patients with treatment-refractory posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 61(3), 203–208.
Zohar, J., & Judge, R. (1996). Paroxetine versus clomipramine in the treatment of obsessive–compulsive disorder. OCD Paroxetine Study Investigators. British Journal of Psychiatry, 169(4), 468–474.
Zohar, J., & Westenberg, H. G. (2000). Anxiety disorders: A review of tricyclic antidepressants and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. Supplementum, 403, 39–49.
Zohar, J., Amital, D., Miodownik, C., et al. (2002). Double-blind placebo-controlled pilot study of sertraline in military veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 22(2), 190–195.
Zohar, J., Fostick, L., Juven-Wetzler, A., et al. (2018). Secondary prevention of chronic PTSD by early and short-term administration of escitalopram: A prospective randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 79(2), 16m10730.
Zwanzger, P., Baghai, T. C., Schule, C., et al. (2001). Tiagabine improves panic and agoraphobia in panic disorder patients. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 62(8), 656–657.
Zwanzger, P., Eser, D., Nothdurfter, C., et al. (2009). Effects of the GABA-reuptake inhibitor tiagabine on panic and anxiety in patients with panic disorder. Pharmacopsychiatry, 42, 266–269.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Section Editor information
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2023 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this entry
Cite this entry
Narita, Z., Fujimoto, M., Winter, E., Nestadt, P., Sawa, A. (2023). Medications for Anxiety Disorders. In: Tasman, A., et al. Tasman’s Psychiatry. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42825-9_136-1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42825-9_136-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-42825-9
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-42825-9
eBook Packages: Springer Reference MedicineReference Module Medicine