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Islamic NGOs in Somalia and Their Role in the Somali State-Building Process

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Muslim Faith-Based Organizations and Social Welfare in Africa

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Abstract

This chapter describes the rise and evolution of Islamic NGOs in Somalia from the early 1990s to 2010, highlighting their contribution to the country’s development. The chapter explains how Islamic NGOs engaged in humanitarian aid at the onset of the civil war, building consensus among the population. Based on interviews and direct testimonies, this study finds that Somali Islamic NGOs later shifted their focus to the provision of social services, establishing a private social welfare that stands as an alternative to official weak governmental institutions. Using a network approach, through the creation of umbrella organizations such as FPENS, COGWO and the PHRN, Islamic NGOs in Somalia exercised governance functions, grew stronger also benefitting from the fragility of the nascent Government and, in about a decade, they managed to become real platforms for accessing the political sphere, as Presidential elections in 2012 and 2017 indicate.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    For a good description of the crises and of the emergency response, see “Somalia: Real Time Evaluation of the 2006 Emergency Response. Final Report 11/12/2006,” available at https://docs.unocha.org/sites/dms/documents/rte_somalia_report_final_2006.pdf.

  2. 2.

    “Somalia Consolidate Appeal 2006,” accessed 8 August 2019, https://www.humanitarianresponse.info/ru/programme-cycle/space/document/consolidated-appeal-somalia-2006.

  3. 3.

    At that time, the author was involved in the humanitarian response as Emergency Cluster Coordinator for UNICEF Somalia.

  4. 4.

    For a detailed description of the Islamic Courts phenomenon, see Roland Marchal, “Islamic Political Dynamics in the Somali Civil War,” In Islamism and Its Enemies in the Horn of Africa, ed. Alex de Waal (Addis Abeba: Shama Books, 2004), 114–145; Cedric Barnes and Harun Hassan, “The Rise and Fall of Mogadishu’s Islamic Courts,” Chatham House Briefing Papers, 2007; Andre Le Sage, “Stateless Justice in Somalia: Formal & Informal Rule of Law Initiatives,” Research Report for UNDP-Somalia, Published by HD Centre, 2005.

  5. 5.

    The author owes gratitude to Dr. Abdurahman Moallin Abdullahi, former vice-President of Al Islah Islamist Movement for his decision to disclose to her information about the movement that was underground when the field research was on, for discussing the strategies, sharing the views and projections of Al Islah Movement. His insight constitutes much of the base for the author’s own understanding of the Islamic NGO phenomenon in Somalia.

  6. 6.

    Reference is made to the research coordinated by Quintan Wiktorowicz on Islamic Activism in the aftermath of the US decision to launch a military campaign in Afghanistan in response to the September 11 attacks by Al Qaeda in September 2001. The research was aimed at gathering scholarly contributions to the subject of Islamic activism, framed broadly as the mobilization of contention to support Muslim causes. See Quintan Wiktorowicz, Islamic Activism. A Social Movement Theory Approach (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004), 2.

  7. 7.

    Assef Bayat headed the Institute for the Study of Islam in the Modern World (ISIM) where the author spent a fellowship in 2008, supervised by Prof. Martin Van Bruinessen.

  8. 8.

    M.A. Mohamed Salih, “Islamic NGOs in Africa: The Promise and Peril of Islamic Voluntarism,” in Islamism and Its Enemies in the Horn of Africa, ed. Alex De Waal (Addis Abeba: Shama Books, 2004), 46–181.

  9. 9.

    Jonathan Benthall, “Islamic Charities, Faith-Based Organizations, and the International Aid System,” in Understanding Islamic Charities, eds. Jon B. Alterman and Karin von Hippel (Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and International Studies CSIS Press, 2007), 1–14.

  10. 10.

    Salih, “Islamic NGOs in Africa,” 180–181.

  11. 11.

    Arab countries are taken to be the countries that belong to the Arab League, especially the oil-producing countries that have financed aid schemes for development in Africa.

  12. 12.

    Holger Weiss, “Reorganising Social Welfare Among Muslims: Islamic Voluntarism and Other Forms of Communal Support in the Northern Ghana,” Journal of Religion in Africa 32, no. 1 (2002): 83–109.

  13. 13.

    For details, see Valeria Saggiomo, “The Rise of Islamic Resurgence in Somalia,” in Politics and Minorities in Africa, eds. Marisa Fois and Alessandro Pes (Roma: ARACNE, 2013), 245–270.

  14. 14.

    Abdurahman M. Abdullahi, “Tribalism and Islam: The Basics of Somaliness,” in Variations on the Theme of Somaliness, ed. S. Lilius (Turku: Centre for Continuing Education, 2001), 235.

  15. 15.

    Abdurahman M. Abdullahi and Ibrahim Farah, “Reconciling the State and Society in Somalia: Reordering Islamic Work and Clan System.” Paper read at the Somali Studies Association Conference, Ohio, 2008.

  16. 16.

    A good description of the exodus of the Somalis towards the Arabian peninsula can be found in Ismail I. Ahmed, “Remittances and Their Economic Impact in Somaliland,” in Variations on the Theme of Somaliness, ed. Suzanne Lilius (Turku: Centre for Continuing Education, 2001), 184–188. See also Joakim Gundel, The Migration-Development Nexus. Somali Case-Study (Copenhagen, Denmark: Centre for Development Research, 2002).

  17. 17.

    David D. Laitin and Said S. Samatar, Somalia. Nation in Search of a State (Boulder: Westview Press, 1987), 145.

  18. 18.

    The United Nations Security Council resolution of 3 December 1992 launched the Operation Restore Hope under the military leadership of the United States with the United Nations supervising humanitarian aid.

  19. 19.

    Mohamed Sahnoun, Somalia. The Missed Opportunities (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1994), 32.

  20. 20.

    United Nations Operations in Somalia I (UNOSOM-I), Department of Public Information, United Nations www.un.org/Depts/DPKO/MIssions/unosomi.htm.

  21. 21.

    Interview with Ibrahim Irshad, Representative for WAMY-Kenya, Nairobi, 9 May 2008.

  22. 22.

    Interview with Abdi Hussein Abdi, officer at AMA, and with Mohamed Bashir, Director of the AMA office in Mogadishu, Nairobi 14 May 2008.

  23. 23.

    Valeria Saggiomo, “Models of Aid to Somalia,” Journal of Internal Displacement 3, no. 2 (July 2013): 29.

  24. 24.

    Khalif Farah, “The Role of Islam in Peace Building and Conflict Resolution in Somalia,” in War Destroyes, Peace Nurtures. Reconciliation and Development in Somalia, eds. Richard Ford, Hussein M. Adam, and Edna Adam Ismail (Asmara: The Red Sea Press, 2004), 301–314.

  25. 25.

    Jabril Abdulle, “Civil Society in the Absence of a Somali State,” in Somalia. Current Conflicts and New Chances for State Building, eds. Axel Harneit-Sievers and Dirk Spilker (Berlin: Heinrich Böll Foundation, 2008), 70–87.

  26. 26.

    André LeSage and Ken Menkhaus, “The rise of Islamic Charities in Somalia: An Assessment of Impact and Agendas.” Paper presented to the 45th Annual International Studies Association Convention, Montreal, 2004.

  27. 27.

    Abdulrahman M. Abdullahi, “The Islah Movement. Islamic Moderation in War-Torn Somalia.” Paper presented at the Second Nordic Horn of Africa Conference. Norway: Oslo University, November 2008.

  28. 28.

    Interview with Sheikh Farah Abdulkadir, at 1994 Director of the Islamic NGOAMA Somalia. Nairobi, 28 July 2008.

  29. 29.

    Faiza Jama Mohamed, “Somali Women and Peacebuilding,” in Whose Peace Is It Anyway? Connecting Somali and International Peacemaking, eds. Mark Bradbury and Sally Healy. Accord: An International Review of Peace Initiatives, Issue 21 (London: Conciliation Resources, 2010), 62–65. See also Faiza Jama Mohamed, Women in Peace and Transition Processes. Somalia 2000. Geneva: Inclusive Peace & Transition Initiative, The Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, 2018.

  30. 30.

    “The Sisters. Saacid Australia—Saacid International” SAACID website, accessed 7 August 2019, www.saacid.org.

  31. 31.

    Hassan Sheikh and Sally Healy, Somalia’s Missing Million: The Somali Diaspora and Its Role in Development (Nairobi: UNDP, 2009).

  32. 32.

    “COGWO—Coalition for Grassroots Somali Women’s Organizations” Women’s UN Report Network (WUNRN), accessed 1 August 2019, https://wunrn.com/2009/06/somalia-coalition-for-womens-ngos-undp-somali-diaspora-study/.

  33. 33.

    Ralph Johnstone, Pioneers for Peace. Advancing the Involvement of Women in Peace Building in South-Central Somalia (Mogadishu: Centre for Research and Dialogue, 2007), 18. http://www.interpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2007/01/2007_SomSC_Interpeace_CRD_The_Involvement_Of_Women_EN.pdf.

  34. 34.

    The history of FPENS given here was outlined by Abdulkadir Sheikh Farah, ex-President of FPENS and currently member of the board. Interview with Abdulkadir Sheikh Farah, Nairobi, 6 August 2008.

  35. 35.

    Collected in Somalia by the author between 2003 and 2006.

  36. 36.

    WAMY/NOVIB. “Arab Donor Policies and Practices Regarding Education in Somalia/Land. A Joint Research Project of Somalia,” unpublished, 2003.

  37. 37.

    For further information on FPENS, see Valeria Saggiomo, “From Charity to Governance: Islamic NGOs and Education in Somalia,” The Open Area Studies Journal 4, no. 1 (April 2011): 53–61.

  38. 38.

    This amount is a calculation of the author based on accounts from LeSage and Menkhaus, “The Rise of Islamic Charities in Somalia,” The authors refer to 1.5 USD per visit per 300 visits a day.

  39. 39.

    Interview with Sheik Farah Abdulkadir, Nairobi, 28 July 2008.

  40. 40.

    Zakat-giving is an annual mandatory duty, usually paid during the month of Ramadan. Zakat traditional amounts to 2.5% of individual property, including business profits gained within the Muslim calendar year (354 days).

  41. 41.

    Interview with Dr. Abdi Nur, Somali medical doctor, in his quality of zakat payer. Nairobi, 19 April 2008. Dr. Abdi Nur also reported that both men and women pay zakat: if a Somali woman owns jewellery and she does not wear it for one year, she needs to give a percentage of that jewellery for annual zakat.

  42. 42.

    “Annual Report 2005” Al Tadamun Charity, accessed April 2010, https://www.tadamun.so/annual-report/.

  43. 43.

    Waqf in Arabic means “perpetuity” and indicates a property that is passed under Islamic law by gift or testament to the state or to NGOs for charitable purposes, such as the building of mosques and schools, providing the public with drinking water, facilitating pilgrimages to Mecca, or the relief of poverty and other needs.

  44. 44.

    Known in Somalia by the acronym INXA, Hay’adda Isku Xirka Nabadda iyo Xuqququl Insaanka.

  45. 45.

    Jama Mohamed, “Somali Women and Peacebuilding.”

  46. 46.

    “Organizational Profile,” www.inxa.org, last modified 30 September 2007, accessed 13 February 2012.

  47. 47.

    “PHRN Annual Report of the Civil Society and Advocacy Development,” www.inxa.org, accessed 13 February 2012.

  48. 48.

    The Contact Group was set up in June 2006 to discuss interventions of pacification and reconciliation in Somalia, following the ICU’s conquest of the south of the country. The Contact Group provided informal coordination and consultation and was made up of the Ambassadors of the chief donor nations to Somalia: United States, Norway, Italy, Sweden, Britain, the EU Presidency and Commission, Tanzania and Somalia, with the Foreign Minister of the Transition Government, plus the African Union, IGAD, Arab League and United Nations as observers.

  49. 49.

    The Peace and Human Rights Network (PHRN), “Annual Report of the Civil Society and Advocacy Development 2007,” http://www.inxa.org, accessed 13 February 2012.

  50. 50.

    Interview to Ibrahim Farah, 31 July 2008, Nairobi.

  51. 51.

    Janine Clark, Islam, Charity and Activism. Middle Class Networks and Social Welfare in Egypt, Jordan, and Yemen (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004), 21.

  52. 52.

    Wiktorowicz, Islamic Activism, 12.

  53. 53.

    Adopted on August 2012, The Federal Republic of Somalia, Provisional Constitution is based on the foundations of the Holy Quran and the Sunna of the prophet Mohamed, as stated in Article 3(1).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Naples “L’Orientale”, Naples, Italy

    Valeria Saggiomo

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  1. Valeria Saggiomo
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Correspondence to Valeria Saggiomo .

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  1. Department of History, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland

    Holger Weiss

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Saggiomo, V. (2020). Islamic NGOs in Somalia and Their Role in the Somali State-Building Process. In: Weiss, H. (eds) Muslim Faith-Based Organizations and Social Welfare in Africa. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38308-4_5

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