Abstract
ZVI (zero valent iron, Fe0, n-ZVI, m-ZVI) and the associated corrosion products n-FeO, n-Fe3O4, n-FexOyHz [mH2O], and n-Fex[Cation]nOyHz[Anion]m [rH2O] are eco-materials. They operate by reaction, redox equilibrium shift, adsorption, adsorption/desorption, and catalysis. They have been used commercially to treat (i) river water to municipal potable water (<20,000 m3 d−1), (ii) municipal industrial wastewater to riparian/groundwater (60,000 m3 d−1), (iii) recover gold and copper from hypersaline wastewater (30 m3 h−1), (iv) treat sewage effluent (12 m3 d−1), (v) process borehole/well water to potable household water (150,000–250,000 m3 d−1 since 2000), and (vi) polluted aquifers and soils using aquifer injection and permeable reactive barriers. ZVI water treatment is undertaken in surface-based reactors, within aquifers, within soils, and within boreholes. The reactors can use ground water, riparian water, sea water, sewage effluent, impoundments, reservoirs, ponds, wells, riparian water, overland flow, irrigation water, flowback water, mine water, municipal water, industrial wastewater, agricultural wastewater and reject brine from desalination plants as a feedstock. They can be used to manufacture from wastewater: (i) riparian, industrial grade, irrigation grade, and agricultural grade water; (ii) livestock feed water; (iii) potable water including emergency relief water; (iv) partially desalinated water for irrigation; (v) a feedstock for a reverse osmosis (RO) desalination plant from its reject brine; (vi) n-metals by the recovery of dissolved metals from water; (vii) hydrogen, synthesis gas, and hydrocarbon fuel gases; and (viii) heavy water as a fuel for fusion reactors. This chapter summarizes the technology and its current status with specific reference to the patent literature (supplemented, where appropriate, by the academic literature).
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Abbreviations
- AP:
-
Anderson Process (US Patent 443,737)
- A :
-
Pre-exponential factor
- a s :
-
Particle surface area, m2 g−1 Fe; as of sponge iron pellets varies with source but is typically in the range 0.769–1.000 m2 g−1 Fe
- B&F:
-
Ball and Fitts Process (US Patent 138,466)
- BP:
-
Bischof Process (GB Patent 2516)
- BTEX:
-
Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene
- C:
-
Charge of the capacitor created by the n-ZVI spheres/n-ZVI particles and their hydroxyoxides
- CS:
-
Simple closed system diffusion reactor
- CT:
-
Chlorine
- CCS:
-
Complex closed system diffusion reactor
- COD:
-
Chemical oxygen demand
- COS:
-
Complex open system diffusion reactor
- C t = 0 :
-
Initial pollutant concentration in the feed water
- C t = n :
-
Pollutant concentration in the product water
- C t = e :
-
Equilibrium pollutant concentration in the product water
- C m :
-
Charge capacity of the agglomerate
- DBP:
-
Disinfection by-products
- DCA:
-
Dichloroacetic acid
- DCE:
-
Dichloroethylene
- DCP:
-
Dichlorophenol
- DDD:
-
Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane
- DDT:
-
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
- d r :
-
Fe0 dissolution rate
- EDB:
-
Ethylene dibromide
- E :
-
External field, volts, (i.e., Eh of the water)
- E a :
-
Activation energy
- e :
-
Equilibrium or electron
- FB:
-
Fluidized bed or entrained bed reactor
- G h :
-
Gas holdup
- HCA:
-
Hydroxycitric acid
- HCBD:
-
Hexachlorobutadiene
- HMX:
-
Octogen, octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine
- i.d.:
-
Internal diameter
- K :
-
Equilibrium constant
- K DR :
-
Free energy of adsorption constant
- K F :
-
Adsorption capacity constant
- K L :
-
Energy or net enthalpy of adsorption
- k :
-
Observed rate constant
- k n :
-
Rate constant, normalized to as = 1 m2 g−1 Fe and Pw = 1 g L−1
- k ni :
-
Rate constant, normalized to NT = 1 and ne = 1
- k 1 :
-
Observed unimolecular rate constant
- k 2 :
-
Observed bimolecular rate constant
- MB:
-
Moving bed reactor
- NG:
-
Nitroglycerine
- N T :
-
Total number of active sites
- n :
-
The amount of pollutant removed at an instant in time. A linear plot of t vs 1/(no-n), has a slope K, and the intercept is no
- n e :
-
Effectiveness factor which reflects the number of potentially active sites which are available for use (value between 0 and 1)
- n o :
-
The exchange capacity
- n i :
-
The adsorption intensity constant
- ORP:
-
Oxidation reduction potential
- OS:
-
Simple open system diffusion reactor
- PCB:
-
Polychlorinated biphenyl
- PCE:
-
Tetrachloroethylene
- PFD:
-
Process flow diagram
- PNB:
-
Permeable nonreactive barrier
- PPA:
-
Polyacrylic acid
- PRB:
-
Permeable reactive barrier
- P :
-
Number of polar sites
- P r :
-
Pollutant removed by time t, % = 100(([Ct = 0]-[Ct = e])/[Ct = 0])
- P re :
-
Pollutant removed at equilibrium, % = 100(([Ct = 0]-[Ct = e])/[Ct = 0])
- P w :
-
ZVI particle concentration, g L−1
- Q :
-
Water flow rate through the reactor (ZVI Bed), m3 time-1
- q t :
-
Concentration or weight or volume adsorbed/removed at time (e.g., g or g g−1 n-Fe0). It can be related to qe on a second-order adsorption rate as 1/qt = (1/ k(qe)2) + (t/qe)
- q e :
-
Concentration or weight or volume adsorbed/removed at equilibria. h, the initial adsorption rate = k(qe)2, where k = a second-order rate constant
- q m :
-
Adsorption capacity constant
- q s :
-
Adsorption capacity constant
- RDX:
-
Cyclonite, (O2NNCH2)3
- RO:
-
Reverse osmosis
- RP:
-
Roeske Process
- RPC:
-
Revolving Purifier Company
- RSM:
-
Redox switchable moieties
- R :
-
Gas constant
- R r :
-
Nano-pore radius within the agglomerate
- r :
-
Reaction rate, quantity (e.g., moles, gm) L−1 s−1
- SRB:
-
Sulfur-reducing bacteria
- SV :
-
Space velocity
- TBM:
-
Tribromomethane
- TCE:
-
Trichloroethane
- TCE:
-
Trichloroethylene
- TCP:
-
1,2,3-Trichloropropane
- TDS:
-
Total dissolved solids
- TeCE:
-
Tetrachloroethane
- TNT:
-
Trinitrotoluene
- TCM:
-
Trichloromethane
- T:
-
Temperature, C
- T :
-
Temperature, K
- t :
-
Time
- t c :
-
Charging time
- t r :
-
Residence time in the reactor, expressed in terms of the reference time t, associated with Q; tr represents the measured residence time, t, in a batch flow reactor, tr = (t = n)–(t = 0). In a continuous flow reactor, tr (seconds) = V/Q (where Q is expressed in m3 s−1)
- VC:
-
Vinyl chloride
- V :
-
Water volume in the reactor
- V g :
-
Gas volume in the reactor at time t
- V L :
-
Liquid volume in the reactor at time t
- V Fe :
-
Entrained volume of Fe/FexOyHz in the reactor at time t
- Vs:
-
Surface voltage
- W :
-
Weight of ZVI in the reactor
- ZVI:
-
Zero valent iron
- ZVM:
-
Zero valent metal
- y :
-
Order of reaction with respect to [A]; concentrations of [A] and [B] are mole L−1.
- z :
-
Order of reaction with respect to [B]
- θ:
-
Angle of the nano-pore relative to the directional electric field in the water
- α:
-
1/no
- αi:
-
Internal conductivity
- αe:
-
External conductivity
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Antia, D.D.J. (2021). Water Treatment and Desalination Using the Eco-materials n-Fe0 (ZVI), n-Fe3O4, n-FexOyHz[mH2O], and n-Fex[Cation]nOyHz[Anion]m [rH2O]. In: Kharissova, O.V., Torres-Martínez, L.M., Kharisov, B.I. (eds) Handbook of Nanomaterials and Nanocomposites for Energy and Environmental Applications. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-36268-3_66
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